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| Subspecies: | Unknown |
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| Est. World Population: | |
| CITES Status: | NOT LISTED |
| IUCN Status: | Critically Endangered |
| U.S. ESA Status: | NOT LISTED |
| Body Length: | |
| Tail Length: | |
| Shoulder Height: | |
| Weight: | |
| Top Speed: | |
| Jumping Ability: | (Horizontal) |
| Life Span: | in the Wild |
| Life Span: | in Captivity |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Females) |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Males) |
| Litter Size: | |
| Gestation Period: | |
Habitat:
Like its congeners, Andrias davidianus occurs in clear, cool, slow to swift flowing streams with a pH of 6–7 in steep-sided, well-vegetated valleys (including forest) that have caves in rocky banks and karst landscapes (Wang et al. 2004). Between July and September, a single female can lay between 300–1,500 eggs (Fei et al. 2012) in an underwater burrow or cavity that is occupied by a male. Eggs are fertilized externally and are guarded by the male until they hatch 50–60 days later. Larvae then develop in the streams, taking food after about 30 days (Haker 1997). This species is also known to breed in subterranean caves (Dai et al. 2009, Liang et al. 2019).
Congeneric species are known to reach maturity between 5–6 years of age; there are no exact records indicating longevity in the wild, but captive individuals of Chinese Andrias lineages have been known to survive for over 55 years (Ye et al. 1993). Based on this information, its generation length is estimated to be 15 years (Liang and Wu 2012).
Range:
This species has traditionally been interpreted as a single geographically wide-ranging species distributed across multiple montane ecoregions and river basins (Yangtze, Yellow, Pearl, and southeast Chinese river drainages); however, it has recently been shown to constitute a complex of at least three different species including the South China Giant Salamander Andrias sligoi and at least one other undescribed taxon (Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019, Turvey et al. 2019). This species is now considered to be native only to the Yangtze and Yellow River drainages in China (Liang et al. 2018, Yan et al. 2018, Turvey et al. 2019) and is associated with the Qinling, Dabashan, Zhongtiaoshan, Daliangshan and Wumengshan mountain ranges (Liang et al. 2019). It is known with certainty from Gansu, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and Chongqing municipality in China (Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019). Records from Daliangshan mountain range are uncertain, and further taxonomic work needs to be carried out to verify their identity (Andrias Workshop December 2020).
While this species has been reported from in the Qinling mountains of Gansu and Sichuan provinces (Clade C of Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019), and the Nanling mountains of Guangxi Province (Clade A of Yan et al. 2018), the taxonomic identity of these records remain uncertain. Clade C subpopulations represent a sister lineage to this species; however, these subpopulations might represent a distinct undescribed species, as phylogenetic analyses show a deep genetic divergence between these two clades. The Clade A subpopulation from the Nanling mountains in Guangxi Province is not sister to either of the described Chinese Andrias species and this subpopulation might also represent a distinct, undescribed, species. A giant salamander specimen was also reportedly collected in 1966 from the headwaters of the Yangtze River in Qumalai County, Qinghai Province, China at an elevation of 4,200 m asl; this potentially represents a disjunct, isolated salamander subpopulation occurring at an elevation >2,000 m asl, higher than any other known subpopulation (Chen 2011, Pierson et al. 2014). The existence of this subpopulation has not been confirmed (Pierson et al. 2014), and its taxonomic status is uncertain. For the purpose of this assessment, these records are included in the map but coded as 'Presence Uncertain'.
Records of the species in Taiwan, Province of China have not been confirmed although Chinese giant salamanders that were due to be illegally exported to Taiwan have been confiscated in Fujian Province (B. Tapley pers. comm. October 2020).
A single captive specimen of A. sligoi exists in Japan (M. Takahashi pers. comm. November 2020). There are possibly other introduced lineages of Chinese Andrias present in Japan as well. Morphological data suggest mixing between the Japanese and Chinese Andrias species, and mtDNA that are specific to Chinese Andrias was found from giant salamanders in Japanese rivers showing intermediate morphology between Japanese and Chinese species (Matsui et al. 2008).
The wide-scale and intentional releases of giant salamanders across China have resulted in genetic homogenisation of some local subpopulations (Yan et al. 2018). A. davidianus that were thought to have originated from farm releases have been found across China e.g. Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hebei, Jiangxi and Zhejiang Provinces (Yan et al. 2018) although it is not yet known if these translocated animals can form viable subpopulations, and little evidence of any giant salamander subpopulations found across China in an extensive 2013–2016 field survey (Turvey et al. 2018).
It is thought to occur between 100–1,700 m asl; however, there are historical (unconfirmed) reports of Andrias at one site in Qinghai Province at 4,200 m asl (Fei et al. 2012, Pierson et al. 2014).
While this species has been reported from in the Qinling mountains of Gansu and Sichuan provinces (Clade C of Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019), and the Nanling mountains of Guangxi Province (Clade A of Yan et al. 2018), the taxonomic identity of these records remain uncertain. Clade C subpopulations represent a sister lineage to this species; however, these subpopulations might represent a distinct undescribed species, as phylogenetic analyses show a deep genetic divergence between these two clades. The Clade A subpopulation from the Nanling mountains in Guangxi Province is not sister to either of the described Chinese Andrias species and this subpopulation might also represent a distinct, undescribed, species. A giant salamander specimen was also reportedly collected in 1966 from the headwaters of the Yangtze River in Qumalai County, Qinghai Province, China at an elevation of 4,200 m asl; this potentially represents a disjunct, isolated salamander subpopulation occurring at an elevation >2,000 m asl, higher than any other known subpopulation (Chen 2011, Pierson et al. 2014). The existence of this subpopulation has not been confirmed (Pierson et al. 2014), and its taxonomic status is uncertain. For the purpose of this assessment, these records are included in the map but coded as 'Presence Uncertain'.
Records of the species in Taiwan, Province of China have not been confirmed although Chinese giant salamanders that were due to be illegally exported to Taiwan have been confiscated in Fujian Province (B. Tapley pers. comm. October 2020).
A single captive specimen of A. sligoi exists in Japan (M. Takahashi pers. comm. November 2020). There are possibly other introduced lineages of Chinese Andrias present in Japan as well. Morphological data suggest mixing between the Japanese and Chinese Andrias species, and mtDNA that are specific to Chinese Andrias was found from giant salamanders in Japanese rivers showing intermediate morphology between Japanese and Chinese species (Matsui et al. 2008).
The wide-scale and intentional releases of giant salamanders across China have resulted in genetic homogenisation of some local subpopulations (Yan et al. 2018). A. davidianus that were thought to have originated from farm releases have been found across China e.g. Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hebei, Jiangxi and Zhejiang Provinces (Yan et al. 2018) although it is not yet known if these translocated animals can form viable subpopulations, and little evidence of any giant salamander subpopulations found across China in an extensive 2013–2016 field survey (Turvey et al. 2018).
It is thought to occur between 100–1,700 m asl; however, there are historical (unconfirmed) reports of Andrias at one site in Qinghai Province at 4,200 m asl (Fei et al. 2012, Pierson et al. 2014).
Conservation:
Conservation Actions In-Place
This species is listed as a Class II state key protected wildlife species in China, and all Andrias species have been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1975. The genus is considered a global priority for conservation due to its evolutionary history and global endangerment (Isaac et al. 2012).
The Chinese government has been carrying out a national action plan for Chinese giant salamander reintroduction into the wild since 2002 but this reintroduction has not considered the phylogeography of the genus (Yan et al. 2018). There are very few published accounts of successful reintroductions as post-release monitoring is not undertaken. Luo et al. (2009) reported the survival of some released individuals a year after their release. Some of the more recently released individuals have been pit tagged; however only one pit tagged individual (that was released in 2017) has been found and recorded again to date (Z. Liang pers. comm. December 2020). It is unknown which of the described Chinese Andrias species they belong to, and work needs to be carried out to identify their lineage (Z. Liang pers. comm. December 2020). Although releases are known to take place across much of central, southern and eastern China, very few surviving released individuals were detected in the wild during the range-wide giant salamander survey in 2013–2016, and dead salamanders have been found at known release sites (Turvey et al. 2018). Farm releases have not met IUCN translocation guidelines and they pose a risk to wild subpopulations, with translocations possibly spreading pathogens and mixing different lineages and/or species (Cunningham et al. 2016, Turvey et al. 2018, Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019, Turvey et al. 2019). In 2020, Hunan Provincial Forestry Bureau issued a document to the local governments of Zhangjiajie city, Shimen and Chenxi County to regulate the breeding and release programmes of giant salamanders which states the following: 1) The release programmes in the reserve areas must be approved by both the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and Zhangjiajie Giant Salamander National Nature Reserve; any release by social organisations or persons without approval are prohibited; and 2) Salamanders for release in nature reserve areas can only be provided by the rescue centre, both genetic assessment and disease quarantine are required, and releases of any hybrid individuals are prohibited (Andrias Workshop December 2020).
Andrias davidianus is reported to occur in over 50 national, provincial and county-level nature reserves – some of which use the species as their main conservation target. It is difficult to determine how successful these reserves are in protecting the species, or even if the species is still extant in some of them, and it is known that releases (presumably including non-native species or lineages) are known to take place within many of these reserves (e.g. Luo et al. 2009) although this is thought to have stopped in many regions in recent years (J. Chai pers. comm. December 2020). The Hunan Giant Salamander Rescue Centre is conducting ex-situ conservation breeding for the genetic lineages they hold. Genetic testing has been carried out and is ongoing with individuals from clades B and D (as per Yan et al. 2018) identified as being held at the centre (J. Chai pers. comm. December 2020).
Conservation Needed
There are a number of different conservation actions required for this species. Firstly, protective legislation should be strengthened and enforced so that any remaining subpopulations can be safeguarded including legislation to separate farmed individuals from wild individuals (Lu et al. 2020, Andrias Workshop December 2020). Targeted ex situ action is required including the establishment of captive populations of different lineages that are managed for conservation breeding, with separation of individuals used for conservation breeding and in commercial breeding, and with subsequent translocations being considered (Lu et al. 2020). The release of salamanders from farms should be halted immediately. These animals are of unknown provenance and lineage, and are released into sites with no pre-release evaluation of the presence of extant giant salamanders, ecological impacts of the releases, or post-release monitoring. A coordinated and evidence based approach to reintroduction is needed, especially with regards to genetic screening and pre-release health screening, translocations should be evaluated with post release monitoring, and there is a need for closer collaboration between conservation biologists, protected area managers, fisheries departments and researchers to implement conservation actions (Lu et al. 2020). Measures are also required for a tagging system and farming licenses should be regulated (X. Lingyun pers. comm. December 2020). Any conservation plan will also need to incorporate a programme to raise awareness, involving civil societies, and educate locals on the importance of conserving the species (R. Murphy and W. Bo pers. comm. December 2020).
Research Needed
Further research into the population size, distribution and trends, life history, ecology and threats is required. More work is also required to resolve taxonomic uncertainty and to identify evolutionarily significant units. There is an urgent need to develop a updated species conservation action plan.
This species is listed as a Class II state key protected wildlife species in China, and all Andrias species have been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1975. The genus is considered a global priority for conservation due to its evolutionary history and global endangerment (Isaac et al. 2012).
The Chinese government has been carrying out a national action plan for Chinese giant salamander reintroduction into the wild since 2002 but this reintroduction has not considered the phylogeography of the genus (Yan et al. 2018). There are very few published accounts of successful reintroductions as post-release monitoring is not undertaken. Luo et al. (2009) reported the survival of some released individuals a year after their release. Some of the more recently released individuals have been pit tagged; however only one pit tagged individual (that was released in 2017) has been found and recorded again to date (Z. Liang pers. comm. December 2020). It is unknown which of the described Chinese Andrias species they belong to, and work needs to be carried out to identify their lineage (Z. Liang pers. comm. December 2020). Although releases are known to take place across much of central, southern and eastern China, very few surviving released individuals were detected in the wild during the range-wide giant salamander survey in 2013–2016, and dead salamanders have been found at known release sites (Turvey et al. 2018). Farm releases have not met IUCN translocation guidelines and they pose a risk to wild subpopulations, with translocations possibly spreading pathogens and mixing different lineages and/or species (Cunningham et al. 2016, Turvey et al. 2018, Yan et al. 2018, Liang et al. 2019, Turvey et al. 2019). In 2020, Hunan Provincial Forestry Bureau issued a document to the local governments of Zhangjiajie city, Shimen and Chenxi County to regulate the breeding and release programmes of giant salamanders which states the following: 1) The release programmes in the reserve areas must be approved by both the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and Zhangjiajie Giant Salamander National Nature Reserve; any release by social organisations or persons without approval are prohibited; and 2) Salamanders for release in nature reserve areas can only be provided by the rescue centre, both genetic assessment and disease quarantine are required, and releases of any hybrid individuals are prohibited (Andrias Workshop December 2020).
Andrias davidianus is reported to occur in over 50 national, provincial and county-level nature reserves – some of which use the species as their main conservation target. It is difficult to determine how successful these reserves are in protecting the species, or even if the species is still extant in some of them, and it is known that releases (presumably including non-native species or lineages) are known to take place within many of these reserves (e.g. Luo et al. 2009) although this is thought to have stopped in many regions in recent years (J. Chai pers. comm. December 2020). The Hunan Giant Salamander Rescue Centre is conducting ex-situ conservation breeding for the genetic lineages they hold. Genetic testing has been carried out and is ongoing with individuals from clades B and D (as per Yan et al. 2018) identified as being held at the centre (J. Chai pers. comm. December 2020).
Conservation Needed
There are a number of different conservation actions required for this species. Firstly, protective legislation should be strengthened and enforced so that any remaining subpopulations can be safeguarded including legislation to separate farmed individuals from wild individuals (Lu et al. 2020, Andrias Workshop December 2020). Targeted ex situ action is required including the establishment of captive populations of different lineages that are managed for conservation breeding, with separation of individuals used for conservation breeding and in commercial breeding, and with subsequent translocations being considered (Lu et al. 2020). The release of salamanders from farms should be halted immediately. These animals are of unknown provenance and lineage, and are released into sites with no pre-release evaluation of the presence of extant giant salamanders, ecological impacts of the releases, or post-release monitoring. A coordinated and evidence based approach to reintroduction is needed, especially with regards to genetic screening and pre-release health screening, translocations should be evaluated with post release monitoring, and there is a need for closer collaboration between conservation biologists, protected area managers, fisheries departments and researchers to implement conservation actions (Lu et al. 2020). Measures are also required for a tagging system and farming licenses should be regulated (X. Lingyun pers. comm. December 2020). Any conservation plan will also need to incorporate a programme to raise awareness, involving civil societies, and educate locals on the importance of conserving the species (R. Murphy and W. Bo pers. comm. December 2020).
Research Needed
Further research into the population size, distribution and trends, life history, ecology and threats is required. More work is also required to resolve taxonomic uncertainty and to identify evolutionarily significant units. There is an urgent need to develop a updated species conservation action plan.