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| Subspecies: | Unknown |
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| Est. World Population: | 362000-502000,423000 |
| CITES Status: | NOT LISTED |
| IUCN Status: | Least Concern |
| U.S. ESA Status: | NOT LISTED |
| Body Length: | |
| Tail Length: | |
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| Top Speed: | |
| Jumping Ability: | (Horizontal) |
| Life Span: | in the Wild |
| Life Span: | in Captivity |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Females) |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Males) |
| Litter Size: | |
| Gestation Period: | |
Habitat:
This species breeds on small tundra lakes, pools, bogs, rivers and coastal sites of the high Arctic. It generally avoids wooded tundra, although in north Scandinavia it does reach the arctic-alpine zone among willows and dwarf birch. It winters mostly at sea, generally far offshore, but also inland in large, deep, freshwater lakes or brackish lagoons (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014).
It breeds from late-May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988) in single pairs or loose groups (Kear 2005, Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). The nest is a natural depression, or rock crevice, lined with surrounding plant matter and down, among vegetation or in the open and frequently close to water. Clutches are normally six to nine eggs (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). The species shows a preference for marine foods (Johnsgard 1978). Its diet consists predominantly of animal matter (Snow and Perrins 1998) such as crustaceans, molluscs, other marine invertebrates, fish, and in fresh water, insects and their larvae; also a little plant material. The species is migratory, moving in large flocks at night. Many birds winter at sea in the far northern regions, generally as far south as Britain, the Danube River and the Black Sea. Birds leave their breeding grounds in the first half of October and return mid-March (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014).
Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.
It breeds from late-May onwards (Madge and Burn 1988) in single pairs or loose groups (Kear 2005, Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). The nest is a natural depression, or rock crevice, lined with surrounding plant matter and down, among vegetation or in the open and frequently close to water. Clutches are normally six to nine eggs (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). The species shows a preference for marine foods (Johnsgard 1978). Its diet consists predominantly of animal matter (Snow and Perrins 1998) such as crustaceans, molluscs, other marine invertebrates, fish, and in fresh water, insects and their larvae; also a little plant material. The species is migratory, moving in large flocks at night. Many birds winter at sea in the far northern regions, generally as far south as Britain, the Danube River and the Black Sea. Birds leave their breeding grounds in the first half of October and return mid-March (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014).
Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.
Range:
The species is circumpolar, breeding on the Arctic coasts primarily of Russia, but also of Greenland and other northern European countries such as Iceland and Norway.
It winters at sea further south and within Europe can be found as far as south the United Kingdom and other areas including the Black Sea and Caspian Sea (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). Countries with notable population sizes in winter include Sweden, Germany, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Iceland.
It winters at sea further south and within Europe can be found as far as south the United Kingdom and other areas including the Black Sea and Caspian Sea (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). Countries with notable population sizes in winter include Sweden, Germany, Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Iceland.
Conservation:
Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II. Some of the species's habitat is protected. Efforts are on-going to monitor populations of this species in many parts of its range.
Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue to assess trends in Europe. Carry out research to identify the causes of the decline in the Baltic Sea. React to improved knowledge of threats to the species by implementing actions to mitigate their impacts. Study the causes of reduced breeding productivity.
CMS Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex II. Some of the species's habitat is protected. Efforts are on-going to monitor populations of this species in many parts of its range.
Conservation Actions Proposed
Continue to assess trends in Europe. Carry out research to identify the causes of the decline in the Baltic Sea. React to improved knowledge of threats to the species by implementing actions to mitigate their impacts. Study the causes of reduced breeding productivity.