This species very rarely breeds in Europe (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Small numbers of birds winter in Europe, mostly at sea, along low-lying rocky coasts and frequenting bays and river mouths (Billerman et al. 2020). It feeds mostly by diving, chiefly consuming molluscs, crustaceans and other marine invertebrates as well as small fish and freshwater insects and larvae. The species is migratory, travelling 3,000 km to its moulting sites (Kear 2005), before some continue migration to more distant wintering sites (Petersen et al. 2006). It arrives at its wintering grounds in Europe between October and November and departs April to May (Billerman et al. 2020). Some birds remain at wintering sites over the summer (Kear 2005).

Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.

In Europe, this species only occurs in the non-breeding season. 
In winter it occurs almost entirely in Russia, but also notably in Norway.

Conservation Actions Underway
CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. Bern Convention Appendix II. A European action plan was published in 2000 (Anon. 2001). It is a protected species in Russia. Work has begun in Russia to conduct waterfowl population and subsistence harvest surveys (K. Laing in litt. 2004).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Survey breeding and wintering grounds (particularly surrounding the Kola Peninsula, Russia) to determine population size and trends. Determine causes of current declines. Work to mitigate threats such as lead poisoning. Ensure subsistence harvest is sustainable.