The species breeds on offshore islands and islets (Kear 2005) along low-lying rocky coasts (Carboneras et al. 2017), on coastal shores and spits, on islets in brackish and freshwater lagoons (Kear 2005), lakes and rivers (Johnsgard 1978) close to the sea (Kear 2005) or on tundra pools, rivers (Carboneras et al. 2017) and lakes (Madge and Burn 1988) up to 5 or 6 km inland (Kear 2005). It shows a preference for boulder-strewn or grassy islands (Johnsgard 1978) with sheltered approaches (Snow and Perrins 1998) that are safe from nest predators, although in the high Arctic where such shelter is unavailable more open sites must be used (in which case the species often nests in closely packed groups for protection) (Snow and Perrins 1998). The species typically winters on shallow seashores, bays and estuaries (Carboneras et al. 2017), especially where there are high abundances of benthic molluscs (Camphuysen et al. 2002, Ens 2006). The species breeds from early-April (although the most northerly populations may not breed until mid-June (Madge and Burn 1988)), and generally nests in colonies. The nest is a slight hollow in the ground that is usually positioned in the shelter of rocks or vegetation but may also be in the open. Its diet consists predominantly of benthic molluscs although crustaceans, echinoderms, other marine invertebrates and fish may also be taken. During the breeding season incubating females frequently complement their diet with algae, berries and the seeds and leaves of surrounding tundra plants (Carboneras et al. 2017). The majority of this species is migratory (Flint et al. 1984), with some populations e.g. in Europe being largely sedentary (Scott and Rose 1996).

Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.

In Europe, this species breeds along the coasts of the northern Atlantic and the North and Baltic seas; largely in Iceland, but also notably in Finland, Norway, Greenland, Sweden, Russia and the United Kingdom.
In winter it notably occurs in Iceland, Germany, Greenland, Denmark and Norway, but its range expands during winter to as far south as the western Mediterranean (Carboneras et al. 2017).

Conservation Actions Underway
EU Birds Directive Annex II and III. CMS Appendix II. There are currently no known conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Sustainable levels of hunting should be established in those areas where the species is harvested and legislation established and enforced to ensure this. Key areas should be protected from all forms of disturbance as well as oil exploration, drilling and transportation. Levels of shellfish harvesting should be monitored to ensure sustainability and measures to minimise bycatch in fishing nets promoted amongst fisheries. International monitoring plans should be developed and a programme of research put in place, while taking precautions to minimise the impact of scientific work.