Behaviour In India the species tends to breed during the rains (Hancock et al. 1992) (between July and September in the south and December to March in the north). The species breeds in solitary pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1992). When not breeding the species is normally seen solitarily or in pairs, but will gather in flocks up to at least 80 at permanent natural or man-made wetlands in dry landscapes (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Pande et al. 2007). 
Habitat The species occurs in natural wetland habitats such as in savanna and grassland, including rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, water-holes, lagoons, dams, flood plains, marshes, and freshwater and peat swamp forests, whilst also using artificial habitats such as rice paddy-fields, flooded pastures, and cultivated fields (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Sundar 2006). The species is also known to use man-made, urban structures such as mobile-towers for nesting, potentially due to their height and increased visibility (Vaghela et al. 2015, G. Sundar in litt. 2020). It is regular in light woodland or forest clearings in Indochina, however may avoid mature forests (del Hoyo et al. 2020). It also frequents coastal mudflats or coral reefs, and can be found up to 1,400 m in Sulawesi and 1,250 m in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Grimmett et al. 1998). It is therefore considered that the species is not wholly reliant on undisturbed habitats (G. Sundar in litt. 2020).
Diet The species is predominantly carnivorous, its diet consisting of fish, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, large insects and larvae, crabs, molluscs and marine invertebrates (del Hoyo et al. 1992). 
Breeding site The nest is a large stick platform built 10-30 m (and sometimes up to 50 m) above the ground or over water, on a fork of a horizontal branch in a tall tree (Hancock et al. 1992, del Hoyo et al. 1992). It is a solitary nester, with nesting pairs thought to be widely scattered during any one breeding season (S. Subramanya in litt. 2020). It may make local movements upwards along river courses in search of nest sites (H. S. Baral and C. Inskipp in litt. 2016). It is also known to breed on farmlands with high success rates, as well as near urbanised areas, although this may be in lower numbers (G. Sundar in litt. 2020).

Ciconia episcopus is found patchily across South Asia and South East Asia. Its range extends from Pakistan (where it is now very rare) through India, lowland Sri Lanka, Nepal (where it is widespread within its altitudinal range [Inskipp et al. 2016]), Bhutan, Bangladesh  and south-east through Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and Sumatra and Java, Indonesia (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Grimmett et al. 1998, Robson 2008). Non-breeders have also been observed in Iran and China (Porter and Aspinal 2010, eBird 2020). Steep declines have been noted since the mid 20th century in South-East Asia (J. W. Duckworth in litt. 2013, 2016, R. J. Timmins in litt. 2013, F. Goes in litt. 2014), with the species considered rare or near-extinction across Thailand (remaining at only 1-2 sites [including few birds at Khao Ang Ru Nai Wildlife Sanctuary] and absent from populated or cultivated lowlands; W. Limparungpatthanakij in litt. 2020, P. Round in litt. 2020), Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia ([where although widespread in lowland deciduous and semi-evergreen forest, it continues to suffer from habitat loss; S. Mahood in litt. 2020]; del Hoyo et al. 2020, P. Round in litt. 2020). In Bangladesh, it is regularly encountered near the Padma River of the Rajshahi Division (S. U. Chowdhury in litt. 2020). Similarly in Pakistan, although numbers remain low, sightings have increased in recent years due to a rise in birdwatching, with a large flock 15 individuals sighted in December 2019 during winter months (Z. A. Shaikh in litt. 2020). Alternatively in Peninsular Malaysia, there has only been a single record in recent years (J. Eaton in litt. 2020). Records are additionally scattered across a handful of islands in Indonesia (J. Eaton in litt. 2020, eBird 2020). Populations in Laos in the 1990s were a fraction of those in the first half of the 20th century (Thewlis et al. 1998). Declines are assumed to have continued in the 2000s–2010s, but information regarding this is fragmentary (J.W. Duckworth in litt. 2016). In the Philippines, the species appears to have become extirpated or near-extirpated from Luzon and other adjacent islands (A. Jensen in litt. 2013, Gonzalez et al. 2018, P. Ghimire in litt. 2020). The population in South Asia appears to be stable overall (Nameer et al. 2015, Praveen J. in litt. 2014, S. Subramanya in litt. 2014), with some evidence of local declines e.g. Nepal, though its distribution there was unchanged post-1990 compared to pre-1990 (Inskipp et al. 2016, H. Baral and C. Inskipp in litt. 2014). A recent survey also found 46 individuals across the Rupandehi and Kapilvasty districts of Nepal (Ghimire and Pandey 2018), and subsequently 28 individuals near the Janakauli village (R. Chaudhary in litt. 2020).

Conservation Actions Underway
Surveys of wetland birds have captured data on this species, and it occurs in numerous protected areas. It is also listed under Schedule-IV of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India (State of India's Birds 2020). A research and conservation project was also initiated in Nepal from November 2016 aiming to implement a variety of tools, including education campaigns across 50 schools and 20 social groups (benefiting 3,500 individuals), house visits to raise awareness, bird identification training, bird guiding trips, imposing hunting equipment removal, encouraging campaigns through photography, creating connectivity between conservation science and local culture, and imposing national incentives (including the creation of two Community Based Bird Conservation Units in the districts of Jagadishpur and Kudan with the District Forest Offices of Kapilvastu; Ghimire and Pandey 2018). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
Carry out coordinated surveys to assess the total population size and trend. Conduct research to investigate the true impact of hunting (G. Sundar in litt. 2020). Conduct awareness-raising activities to reduce persecution, and try to bring in hunting regulations (J. W. Duckworth in litt. 2016). Protect additional areas of suitable habitat, especially nesting areas in South-East Asia. Investigate rapid declines of the South-east Asian population, relative to stability observed in the South Asian population (G. Sundar in litt. 2020). Implement skill based training that generate income for locals that improve livelihoods (Ghimire and Pandey 2018). Invest in individual and short-term projects more consistently and continue to raise awareness across local communities (Ghimire and Pandey 2018, R. Chaudhary in litt. 2020).