This species inhabits arid and semi-arid plains and plateaux with rocky escarpments as well as cultivated fields and formerly high-altitude meadows or pastures. It roosts and nests in cliffs, adjacent to watercourses or along the sea coast. It is also found nesting on man-made structures such as castles, walls and towers (Matheu et al. 2014). Breeding begins February to March and finishes late June or early July, however dispersal does not start until August (Cramp et al. 1977). It breeds in colonies of up to 40 pairs. Nests are a loose platform of branches lined with grass, straw, wool, rags and other rubbish. Clutch size is usually two to four eggs (Bowden et al. 2003, Matheu et al. 2014). It feeds on invertebrates such as beetles, snails, scorpions and vertebrates such as amphibians, lizards and snakes, and occasionally even small rodents. Its broad high protein diet also includes some vegetation such as berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants (Hancock et al. 1992, Bowden et al. 2003). The population is mainly migratory.

Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.

Historically, the species occurred across the Alps of central Europe, and a large captive population has been maintained in zoos, which has been used for release trials and reintroduction work in Austria and Spain, with a long-term aim to re-establish the species in parts of its former range. A semi-wild population exists at Birecik, Turkey (Arihan 1998), where birds are free-flying for five months, but are taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent them from migrating (Hatipoglu 2010). No wild or self-sustaining populations of this species are currently present in Europe.

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999 an International Advisory Group (IAGNBI) was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice (Bowden 2001, www.iagnbi.org). An International Species Action Plan was published in 2006. In Turkey, hunting of the species is prohibited and 180 hectares of habitat in Birecik was designated as “Wildlife Improvement Area” in 2011. The management plan has been prepared and waiting for approval (Bowden, C. in litt. 2015). Over 2,000 individuals of the western (Morocco) population exist in captivity worldwide but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (very small numbers held in Turkish zoos [Böhm 2004]). A European Endangered species captive breeding Programme (EEP) was initiated in 1988 (Boehm and Bowden 2010). An in situ breeding programme at Birecik, Turkey has established a partially captive population of c. 190 birds and a number of unsuccessful trial releases of small numbers of birds have taken place since 2007 (Boehm & Bowden 2010, Serra et al. 2014). Most released birds were tagged or satellite tagged and colour-ringing of young birds at Birecik is ongoing (J. Tavares in litt. 2007, Hatipoglu 2010). Reintroduction programmes have focused on developing methodology, and are underway in Austria and Spain (also involving Germany and Italy) (UNEP/CMS 2008, Fritz 2010, Boehm and Bowden 2010). These trials have more recently evolved into reintroduction efforts on site in each case. In Cádiz, southwestern Spain, a total of 190 birds were released between 2004 and 2009 (Boehm and Bowden 2010). Although juvenile mortality was been high, the first breeding pair was formed on nearby cliffs in 2008 and a small independent non-migratory colony is becoming well established in the area (Matheu et al. 2014). There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe (Zoufal et al. 2006). In Austria, a small migratory breeding colony has been established and a European LIFE+ project is in place aiming to establish three self-sustaining breeding colonies north of the Alps by the end of 2019 (http://waldrapp.eu/). In Turkey, efforts have focused on increasing the semi-wild population through better husbandry, and now awareness-raising activities are ongoing, targeting locals and particularly farmers, focusing on the ecological importance of the species and the negative effects of using pesticides (Hatipoglu 2009, Bowden, C. in litt. 2015).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Explore the possibility of conservation translocation and reintroduction of captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available) (Mendelssohn 1994, Brindley et al. 1995, Bowden 2001, Bowden, C. in litt. 2015). Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey (J. Tavares in litt. 2007). A similar project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities and better links between the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects could be established; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey (J. Tavares in litt. 2007, Serra et al. 2009, Bowden et al. 2012). Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds (J. Tavares in litt. 2007). Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success (Bowden et al. 2003). Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development (Bowden et al. 2003), making sure to involve local people (Serra et al. 2009). Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route (Anon. 2006). Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements (Brindley et al. 1995). Employ management techniques such as the provision of drinking water (Smith et al. 2009, Serra et al. 2009). Common Raven (Corvus corax) populations around breeding sites should be controlled where they are identified as causing significant nest predation (Serra et al. 2009).