Wharton (1968) summarized information about Banteng habitat from throughout its range and he concluded that on the Asian mainland it avoids evergreen forest and even extensive tracts of closed canopy semi-evergreen forest, and is usually within more open dry deciduous forests; but within the more humid areas of Java and Borneo it occupies secondary forest formations resulting from logging and fires, and enters tracts of sub-humid forest on occasion. On the eastern plains of Cambodia, there is no evidence for any change in ecology. In Thailand, reintroduced Banteng prefer low elevation, with flat terrain at further distances from villages and without human disturbance (Chaiyarat et al. 2019b, 2018) but it has been found higher than 1,700 m in Thung Yai Naresuan (West) Wildlife Sanctuary. In Myanmar, Banteng is reported to prefer flat or undulating terrain with light deciduous (particularly dipterocarp indaing forest) or mixed deciduous and evergreen forest, with grassy glades which burn annually, and patches of bamboo; but it has purportedly retreated to denser hill forest in the face of advancing cultivation. (Peacock 1933, Tun Yin 1967, Wharton 1968, Prater 1971). Similarly in Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam, and Lao PDR, Banteng occurs (or occurred) in open mainly deciduous forest with glades, parklands, and dense forest patches; and ‘it is claimed by some that they prefer rocky, slightly hilly country, but they are certainly at home wherever the Kouprey [Bos sauveli] was found. Their range in Cambodia (and elsewhere in South-east Asia) suggests that Banteng are more adaptable than Kouprey and perhaps less exacting in their habitat requirements’ (Wharton 1957, 1968). An attachment to open, more deciduous forest types was reported in Xe Pian National Protected Area, Lao PDR (Steinmetz 2004). The documented and reported distribution of the species in Cambodia, Laos and Viet Nam (based on many sources, but principally summarised in Duckworth and Hedges 1998, Duckworth et al. 1999 and AWCSG 2011) quite clearly corresponds in large part to the distribution of deciduous dipterocarp forest, but also includes other habitats especially mosaic habitats that include open-canopy formations and grasslands, including for example pine forests. In Thailand, Banteng have been associated with mixed deciduous forest and even agricultural areas (Chaiyarat et al. 2018, Jornburom et al. 2020). In contrast there is a clear paucity of records of Banteng from extensive tracts of closed canopy evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, with no records from the heart of any such dense forests. The supposition that it might prefer rocky, slightly hilly country has not been borne out by recent observations. In the Eastern Plains Landscape, Cambodia, Gray (2012), based on analysis of camera-trap records, considered that Banteng occurred in both very open deciduous dipterocarp forest and denser mixed deciduous forest. It was also suggested that, in the largely homogenous deciduous dipterocarp forest of the Cambodian Eastern Plains Landscape small patches of mixed deciduous forest are important for Banteng at the height of the dry and burning seasons.

On Java Banteng occurs in semi-deciduous monsoon forest with small clearings, more open grassland-monsoon forest mosaics, and ‘parkland’ formations (Halder 1976, Hommel 1987; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 based on unpubl. data 1991–2002). Banteng in Ujung Kulon NP prefer forests in lowland areas with high primary productivity of food sources towards the centre of the park (Rahman 2020, Rahman et al. 2019). On Sabah (Malaysia Borneo) Banteng inhabits tropical lowland and upland dipterocarp forest, lower montane forest, seasonal freshwater swamp forest and beach forest (Melletti and Burton 2014). It also uses open grassland, mature timber plantations (seven years), and abandoned cultivated land. Suitable habitat is associated with specific soil types, is within or close to intact or logged forests with pioneer vegetation and accessible terrain, and in areas with relatively higher precipitation in the driest quarter of the year (Lim et al. 2021). Forest edges, interior openings, abandoned logging roads and river banks are important for foraging, socialising and movement (Payne et al. 1985, Gardner 2015). Human disturbance heavily influences habitat use. In forest habitat that is mature, Banteng travels to interior grassy openings within the forest to forage or travel to the forest edge to forage during undisturbed hours (Gardner 2015).

Banteng generally occurs from sea level up to at least 2,100 m asl (Hoogerwerf 1970, National Research Council 1983, Pudyatmoko 2004; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008 based on unpubl. data 1991–2002). The observed maximum elevation of Banteng in Sabah is approximately 1,330m asl. (P. Gardner pers. obs.).

Banteng reportedly drinks large quantities of water and prefers feeding grounds near a permanent water supply (Hoogerwerf 1970). When conditions are favourable it drinks daily, preferring standing water; but during droughts animals can survive several days without drinking (National Research Council 1983). Mineral licks are also an important feature of Banteng habitat; in coastal regions which lack mineral licks animals seem to meet their mineral requirements by occasionally drinking seawater (Halder 1976, Payne et al. 1985, Alikodra 1987; S. Hedges pers. obs.).

Although probably a grazer by preference Banteng should perhaps be considered an intermediate feeder since it can and does consume a lot of browse and fruits depending on season and local food availability. It eats grasses, sedges, herbs, bamboo, as well as the leaves, fruits, flowers, bark, and young branches of woody shrubs and trees including palms. The young shoots of Alang-alang grass Imperata cylindrica are apparently a favoured food source (Hoogerwerf 1970). Lists of food plants are provided by Wharton (1957), Hoogerwerf (1970), Halder (1976), Sumardja and Kartawinata (1977), Djaja et al. (1982), Alikodra (1987), Prayurasiddhi and Smith (1993). However, very little is known about the Banteng’s nutritional requirements, seasonal and annual variation in dietary preferences, or the composition and quality of diet. Hoogerwerf (1970) believed that Banteng was largely dependent on grasses and sedges and, with reference to Ujung Kulon in West Java, he stated that ‘there were no proofs that browse formed a substantial part of the diet’. However, Schenkel and Schenkel-Hulliger (1969) reported that Banteng and deer in Ujung Kulon are forced to travel widely in the dry season and ‘feed on bamboo, young palm leaves, bush, and saplings as well’. A recent study showed that Banteng supplement their diet with the invasive Cluster Sugar Palm Arenga obtusifolia during the lean dry season (Rahman et al. 2019). The stomachs of a number of bulls which were shot in the South Tjiandur region of Java were almost completely full of non-graminaceous species. In Pananjung-Pangandaran Reserve in West Java Banteng were observed to graze on a variety of plants but appeared to prefer the grasses Ischaemum muticum, Axonopus compressus, Paspalum conjugatum, and Cynodon dactylon; and a woody forest shrub. Grazing intensity was lower in the forest than in the open fields where it was inversely proportional to the amount of Chromolaena odorata [was Eupatorium odoratum] and Imperata cylindrica although they did eat these species (Sumardja and Kartawinata 1977). On Sabah, Banteng was found to forage on eight species found within open canopy sites: Mikania cordata, Chromolaena odorata, Cyperus difformis, Fimbristylis littoralis, Scleria sp., Desmodium triflorum [now Gona triflora], Eleusine indica, and Selaginella sp. (Gardner et al. 2019a).

When undisturbed, Banteng displays a more or less fixed diurnal pattern of behaviour with periods (usually two to three hours long) of feeding alternating with rest periods of a similar length during which the animals ruminate. In areas which are subject to frequent human disturbance it becomes rather nocturnal and generally enters open areas only at night, although in especially attractive localities it will tolerate human presence to a certain extent (Halder 1976). In undisturbed areas Bantengs “do not differentiate much in their activities between day and night, but...really large assemblages on open plains occur almost exclusively by day...”. This round the clock activity (which is, however, interrupted countless times to rest and/or ruminate) may not be regarded as abnormal’ (Hoogerwerf 1970: 211–212).

In undisturbed forest habitat in Sabah (Malaysia Borneo) Banteng activity peaks at dawn and during the early morning hours of 05:00–07:00 hours when the animals emerge from the forest to forage and socialise. Activity decreases mid-morning until early afternoon when they rest and ruminate and at dusk, a second peak in activity occurs during which they forage and socialise (Gardner et al. 2015, 2019a). Banteng activity decreases around 20:00–21:00 hours and again at 03:00-04:00; the reasons for this are unknown (Melletti and Burton 2014, Gardner 2015). Analysis of 160 Banteng camera-trap encounters from the Cambodian Eastern Plains showed nocturnal activity with over 80% of encounters between 18:00 and 06:00 hours (Gray and Phan 2011).

The basic social group appears to be female–juvenile unit (as in the other large Asian Bovini) with larger groups tending to be more-or-less temporary assemblages. Maternal herds containing several adult cows, juveniles, and calves occur; these groups can often contain one or more subadult and adult males. Groups of cows without calves are also seen. For much of the year (adult) Bantengs are largely sexually segregated and all-male groups are frequently encountered at this time. Solitary animals tend to be mature bulls or sometimes old cows. The composition of small groups of cows with calves or juveniles, and the solitary state of old individuals may remain the same for months or even years. The composition of other small groups, particularly the unisex groups, usually varies from day to day. During the mating season the male groups disband and dominant males compete for access to receptive females (Hoogerwerf 1970, Halder 1976; S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002). In large open areas small herds of Banteng and solitary individuals regularly gather to form large temporary assemblages. These large herds will often spend up to two days together during which time they will forage and ruminate, socialise, and re-establish their hierarchy.

Large herds of more than 100 animals have been reported in Java but these herds appear to be temporary associations formed when smaller groups and solitary animals arrive in an area to feed and the animals tend to reform into smaller groups when they leave the feeding areas. The composition of these groups often varies on a daily basis although there may be a stable nucleus of animals which returns to the same clearing day after day. The large herds may have an established dominance hierarchy but it seems to vary depending on the habitat. In more densely vegetated areas solitary animals or small groups, generally with fewer than eight animals, are more typical (Halder 1973, 1976; S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002). In the Eastern Plains Landscape, Cambodia, mean Banteng herd size (estimated from counting individuals in independent camera-trap encounters) was 2.6 individuals with 14% of encounters estimated to comprise groups of more than five individuals (Phan and Gray 2010).

In Thailand the mating season is in May and June (Lekagul and McNeely 1977); while breeding reportedly occurs the whole year round in Myanmar (Peacock 1933). Wharton (1957) collected information from Cambodians living within Banteng habitat which suggested that the majority of births occurred in December and January which, assuming a gestation period of about 10 months, suggests that most conceptions take place in March and April. However, Hermanns (cited in Hoogerwerf 1970) believed that Bantengs in mainland Asia mate from September to October. Hoogerwerf (1970) recorded mating taking place all year round in West Java but there was a peak of activity in October; and he thought that those cows which mated outside the peak period were probably exceptional. He suggested that Bantengs in both East and West Java generally calved in July and August which would suggest that mating generally took place from October to December; more recent observations in East Java have also revealed evidence of year-round mating (neonates have been seen in all months) but with an apparent peak of births between June and September (S. Hedges unpubl. data 1991–2002).

The species historically occurred from southern China (Yunnan) and, probably, northeast India throughout mainland southeast Asia, through Peninsular Malaysia to the islands of Borneo, Java, and probably Bali (see below).

No fossil evidence is known from Bali, and Grubb (2005) stated that Banteng was introduced to the island; Corbet and Hill (1992) did not include Bali in the range of wild Banteng and various other sources simply state that it occurs as domestic animals. Nevertheless, it does not seem unreasonable to suggest that Banteng should be included among the native fauna of Bali since several Indo-Malayan animal species are known to have penetrated eastwards as far as Flores and Timor during times of lowered sea-levels in the Pleistocene (Hooijer 1975). On Borneo (East Kalimantan, Indonesia), ancient cave art (circa 10,000 BP) depicting a bovid figure, thought to be Bos javanicus, was found in 1994 (Chazine 2005), which suggests the natural range of Banteng extended up until Wallace’s line. Ashby and Santiapillai (1988) treated the small number of free-living Bantengs which occur in west Bali as wild animals as did Watling (1991); although Watling noted that interbreeding with domestic Bali cattle is a problem and the population is unlikely to consist solely of pure-bred animals. Wind and Amir (1977) had earlier raised similar fears. If any wild Banteng persists in Bali to date, they are likely only a small population (<10 individuals) suffering from genetic introgression with Bali cattle (J. Burton and C. Bailey pers. comm. 2024).

Domestic Banteng has been introduced to several of the islands of eastern Indonesia including Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Sumba (van der Maarel 1932, Rollinson 1984). Feral Banteng occurs in Kalimantan (National Research Council 1983). Introduced Banteng (probably feral animals) occurs on the Indonesian islands of Enggano (off Sumatra) and Sangihe (off Sulawesi) (Corbet and Hill 1992, Grubb 2005). Domestic Banteng has also been introduced to New Guinea and Australia and there are now large feral herds in the Northern Territory (Kirby 1979, Bowman 1993, Bradshaw et al. 2006).

Wild Banteng currently occur on Java and on Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), on Sabah (part of Malaysian Borneo), and in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam. The small remaining Banteng population in Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo) reported in 1988 (D. Labang, cited in Caldecott 1988) is now considered extinct (Boonratana 1997). Banteng is also thought to be extinct in Brunei (Borneo) (Payne et al. 1985), Bangladesh (Gittins and Akonda 1982), and in India (Prater 1971, IUCN 1978), if it ever occurred there. Groves (2003) stated that “there have been constant reports from Manipur, but there is as yet no confirmation”. In West Malaysia it has probably been extinct since at least the 1950s (Hislop 1961). Medway (1983) thought that Banteng may have still occurred in parts of Kedah and Kelantan after that time, but there have been no recent records. In China, there has been only one record of Banteng in a site in southern Yunnan, around Tongbiguan Nature Reserve (Yingxiang and Banjiao 1987). However, the evidence for this record is unclear and recent extensive field surveys in reserves in southern Yunnan do not confirm any Banteng presence (L. Fei pers. comm. 2023).

In Cambodia, the species was historically widespread in the northern and eastern forests as well as parts of the Cardamom Mountain range, but it’s range has significantly decreased over the last two decades. The bulk of the Cambodian population remains in protected areas in the eastern forests, centred on Mondulkiri province (see Population).The majority of Banteng in the Eastern Plains Landscape remain in the contiguous Phnom Prich and Srepok Wildlife Sanctuaries (WS) in Mondulkiri province (Groenenberg et al. 2023). Smaller populations persist in Keo Seima WS (Mondulkiri), and Lomphat WS (Ratanakiri province) (Griffin and Agger 2021; NatureLife Cambodia pers. comm. September 2023). Whereas, government rangers in adjacent O’Yadav Narional Park (NP) (Ratanakiri province) reported no recent evidence of Banteng, although more research is required to confirm absence (PDoE, pers. comm. 2024). There are also no recent confirmed records from northeastern protected areas, including Virachey (Ratanakiri) (T. Sakhorn pers. comm. 2024) and Veun Sai Siem Pang NPs (Stung Treng province) (FFI unpublished data 2022–2023, MoE pers. comm. 2024). In Northern Cambodia, small scattered Banteng populations occur at very low densities within several Wildlife Sanctuaries across multiple provinces. These include: Stung Treng Province inside Siem Pang WS (Loveridge et al. 2018), Preah Vihear province inside Chhaeb Roka WS(Suzuki et al. 2017, E. Auda, WCS unpublished data 2023), and Kulen Promtep WS (E. Auda, WCS unpublished data 2021–2023), Siem Reap province inside Phnom Tnout Phnom Pok WS (Muñoz 2021), and in Prey Lang WS which straddles Stung Treng, Kratie, Siem Reap, and Kampong Thom provinces (Auda 2023). Recent camera trap studies in Phnom Tbaeng Natural Heritage Park did not record any Banteng (E. Auda, WCS unpublished data, 2023). Outside of Wildlife Sanctuaries in the north, small populations also persist in several community forests including Prochum Met and Phnom Chumroksat in Stung Treng (N. Leroux, WA unpublished data, 2022–2023), Chamreth forest and Changkran Roy (Siem Reap province), and Monks’ (Oddar Meanchey) Community Forests (Jones et al. 2016). Research conducted by Jones et al. (2016) was unable to confirm Banteng presence in the majority of Community Forests to the west of Kulen Promtep WSin Oddar Meanchey and Siem Reap provinces. In Southwestern Cambodia, an isolated Banteng population (ca 40-50 individuals) occurs within the Prambei Mom community forest in Kampong Speu province (Marx 2020). Recent (2023) local reports and sightings suggest that two herds consisting of 12–20 individuals may occur around the O’Truong mountains nearby Phnom Samkos WS in Pursat province (Nang 2023) but this is yet to be confirmed. Based on camera trap and other surveys, it seems there are no recent additional records from Cardamom Mountain range in southwestern Cambodia (N. Leroux pers. comm. September 2023; MoE 2024, WEA 2024, CI 2024).

In Thailand, the Banteng population of the Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM) has increased and expanded over the past two decades, but the nation-wide range has contracted with at least eight extirpations recorded (DNP et al. 2024). The largest and most important population of Banteng remains in WEFCOM, especially in the protected WS Huai Kha Khaeng. Another important WEFCOM population occurs in Khuean Srinagarindra NP, and smaller populations occur in the Thung Yai Naresuan WSs (West), the Mae Wong NP, and the Salakphra WS (DNP et al. 2024). The Banteng population in the Mae Wong NP was a result of natural recolonisation after an absence of the species of over 40 years (Phoonjampa et al. 2021). The Mae Wong subpopulation migrates between the Mae Wong NP and Huai Kha Khaeng WS (R. Chaiyarat pers. comm. 2024). The repopulation of Banteng in Salakphra WS, after an absence of over 30 years, is a result of a conservation reintroduction programme (Chaiyarat et al. 2018, 2023a, 2023b). Between 2014 and 2019, 13 Banteng were released (Chaiyarat et al. 2019a) and the population is currently breeding in the wild (DNP et al. 2024). The availability of unoccupied patches of suitable habitat both within the Huai Kha Khaeng WS as well as in the broader WEFCOM, suggests potential for further expansion of this significant population (Jornburom et al. 2020). The Huai Thap Salao-Huai Rabum Non-hunting Area was established to support future population expansion.

Another important breeding subpopulation exists in the south-central parts of the country, especially in the Khao Ang Rue Nai WS, and to a lesser degree in Khao Khio-Khao Chomphu WS (introduced population; Chaiyarat et al., 2018). A few individuals may persist in the Khao Sip Ha Chan NP, but there are no confirmed sightings over the past decade in the Khao Soi Dao WS and the Khao Chamao – Khao Wong NP (R. Chaiyarat pers. comm. 2024). Small populations also persist in the East with breeding herds confirmed in Thap Lan NP; Pang Sida NP; Dong Yai WS; and Ta Phraya NP (DNP et al. 2024). A few non-breeding Banteng persist in the Buntharik-Yot Mon WS, but presence could not be confirmed in Phu Chong Na Yoi NP; Yot Dome; Huai Thap Than-Huai Samram; and Phanom Dong Rak WSs (DNP et al. 2024). Very small populations persist in the northwestern Salawin and Om Koi WSs (DNP et al. 2024). Some Banteng may migrate between Om Koi WS and Mae Ping NP (R. Chaiyarat pers. comm. 2024). A few lone individuals might persist across protected areas on the Malay Peninsula, such as in the Kui Buri NP and the Namtok Ngao NP, although strong evidence is lacking, (DNP et al. 2024, NP Research Center, Surat Thani, 2016), and the species has been largely (or fully) extirpated from this part of the country. Presence of Banteng could not be confirmed in Kaeng Krachan, Khao Sok, and Kaeng Krung NPs (K. Sribuarod pers. comm. 2022). The species may also be extinct from northern-central parts of the country including from Phu Luang WS (R. Chaiyarat Unpbubl. Data 2019), Phu Khiao WS, and Nam Nao NP.

Banteng is now extirpated across most of its former range in Viet Nam and Lao PDR. Currently, small fragment populations of Banteng persist in two protected areas in the central highlands of Viet Nam: Yok Don NP (N.M. Ha and T.L. Quoc, pers. comm. 2023) and Ea So Nature Reserve (NR) (N.M. Ha pers. comm. 2023). Very small populations may persist in Ninh Son in Ninh Thuan province in the Nha Ho - Dong Me area (Nguyen 2018; A. Tilker pers. comm. 2023). Since the early 2000s, Banteng has gone locally extinct from Chu Mom Ray NP (Kon Tum province), Dak R’Lap District (Dak Nong province), Ta Dung and Nam Nung NRs (Dak Nong province), Bu Dang District and Bu Gia Map NP (Binh Phuoc province), Nam Cat Tien/Cat Tien NP (Dong Nai province), Bi Doup Nui Ba NP and Cat Loc (Lam Dong province), and Nui Ong NR (Bin Thuan province) (Nguyen 2009, Pedrono et al. 2009). Recent extensive camera trapping surveys re-confirm the extirpation of Banteng from Cat Tien NP (A.T.T. Nguyen pers. comm. 2023). A tiny remnant populations persisted in Krong Trai NR (Phu Yen province) in 2005–2007 (Pedrono et al. 2009), but recent (2017–2023) camera trap and interview surveys confirm it is no longer present (A. Tilker and L.T. Quy pers. comm. 2023). By 2010, further population extirpations had occurred in Ma Noi (Ninh Thuan Province), Dong Phu District (Binh Phuoc province), Ea Sup District (Dak Lak province), and Cu Jut (Dak Nong province) (N.M. Ha pers. comm. 2023).

With the exception of the southern parts of the country, Banteng is almost definitely completely absent from Lao PDR (R. Akchousan, pers. comm. 2023). Small remnant populations are confined to protected areas in the South: Xe Pian NP (in Champasack and Attapeu provinces), Dong Ampham National Protected Area (Attapeu province), and Phou Xiengthong National Protected Area (Salavan province) (P. Phiapalath pers. comm. 2023).

Small Banteng populations are scattered across Myanmar. One major stronghold is located in the legally unprotected Nga Wun and Lenya reserved forests in southern Dawna-Tenasserim Landscape (Tanintharyi region, bordering with Thailand) (Shwe et al. 2023). The species is also recorded inside six protected areas: Hukaung Tiger Reserve (Kachin state), Htamanthi WS, Alaungtawkathapha NP, and Mahamyaing WS (Sagaing state), North Zamari WS (Bago state), and Shwe U Daung Wildlife Sanctuary (Mandalay state) (Hein et al. 2020, MONREC 2020).

On Java, the vast majority of Banteng are contained with four protected areas: Ujong Kulon NP to the west, and Baluran NP, Alas Purwo NP, and Meru Betiri NP to the east. Smaller population occur, or may occur, across central and east Kalimantan and perhaps southern Kalimantan (see Population).

On Borneo, the species occurs in four isolated parts of Sabah (Malaysian Borneo): (1) along the southeast coast including Tabin and Kalumba Wildlife Reserves (Lahad Datu and Kinabatangan districts); (2) in the central forest reserves (FR) including Tangkulap; Segaliud-Lokan; and Deramakot (Central-north in Tongod, Kinabantang, and Beluran districts), and Malua FR (Kinabantang); Maliau Basin Conservation Area and buffer zone (Tongod); and Kuamut (Tongod) and Sapulut FRs (Nabawan district) (Central-south); (3) in secluded patches in the southwest of Sabah close to the Kalimantan/Sarawak border including Sipitang FR in Sipitang district; and (4) in the highly fragmented habitat along the north and northeast of Sabah including Paitan and Sugut FRs (Beluran district) (Sabah Wildlife Department, 2019, Gardner et al. 2021). Compared to previous surveys (Davies and Payne 1982, Boonratana 1997), the distribution has retracted and Banteng are now largely confined to protected reserves, commercial forests, and a small area of unprotected forests (Sabah Wildlife Department 2019). Banteng are now considered absent from the Dent peninsular, Kinabatangan WS, Trusan Kinabatangan and Lower Kinabatangan, Beaufort, Keningau, and Kudat districts, and Bonggaya FR. The presence of Banteng could not be confirmed during the most recent (2011–2016) state-wide survey in the Ulu-Tungud FR (also known as Tunkut FR), Silabukan FR, Kabili Sepilok FR, the Lower reaches of River Segama and River Kinabatangan, Malubuk FR, Tawau Hills Park, Kinabalu Park, and Tanjung Linsang proposed reserve (Sabah Wildlife Department 2019).

This species is legally protected in all range states. A proposal for inclusion into CITES Appendix I was submitted (Hedges 1996), however, there have been no developments and the species is not currently listed.

The most significant known Banteng populations remaining are in Java, Cambodia, Thailand, and Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia), and it is in these countries and around these populations that conservation efforts should be focused.

Banteng is mainly confined to protected areas throughout South-east Asia (see Population). Unfortunately, in most protected areas of Lao PDR, Viet Nam, and Cambodia which still retain Banteng, protected status offers little if any protection to the species (Groenenberg et al.2023, Nuttall et al. 2022). The immediate conservation needs are to continue strengthening site-based conservation management to reduce anthropogenic threats within and around core Banteng range areas. Improvements should include the strengthening of law enforcement to reduce all forms of hunting and unplanned habitat conversion as well as more effective engagement with local communities (Linkie et al. 2015, Wright et al. 2016, Belecky et al. 2019). Identification of existing populations and distribution across Cambodia is crucial to ensuring all populations and conserved and managed accordingly. Conservation breeding and translocation programmes may now be necessary to support population recovery in well protected areas and the feasibility of such programme is currently being assessed for Siem Pang Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia (J. Lyon pers. comm. November 2023).

The recovering population trend of several Thai Banteng populations is probably attributed to a combination of factors including: (1) the effects of decades of conservation outreach, media attention, and education that has increased ethical and conservation concerns for wildlife, and shifted social norms and cultural values away from hunting (Steinmetz et al. 2014, GlobeScan et al. 2021); (2) a shift in local hunting practices, which tend to target small wildlife species rather than large ungulates (Phumanee et al. 2020); (3) improved law enforcement (Duangchantrasiri et al. 2016); (4) effective logging bans (R. Chaiyarat pers. comm. 2024); and (5) habitat management targeted at ungulates, particularly the creation of grasslands, saltlicks, and water sources which can increase population growth rates of ungulates (Fryxell et al. 2014). Law enforcement in conjunction with local stakeholder engagement is essential to tackle poaching (Steinmetz et al. 2006, 2014; Jornburom et al. 2020). Maintaining and expanding suitable habitat and connectivity between fragmented populations will be essential for gene flow and long-term population viability (Trisurat et al. 2010, Suksawat et al. 2018, Phoonjampa et al. 2021). Successful Banteng reintroductions have occurred in Salakphra WS and, in conjunction with careful genetic management of both the source and wild stock, proved an effective conservation strategy to prevent extinction (Phoonjampa et al. 2021, Chaiyarat et al. 2023b).

Java has highly fragmented natural habitats and has done for centuries, reflecting longstanding high human population densities. Many protected areas were established during the Dutch colonial period but from independence up until the 1970s they were largely under-funded and neglected. After hosting the World Parks Conference in 1982, the Indonesian government gazetted a swathe of NPs and more structured conservation planning began, funded by the World Bank and other donors. The focus was largely on the 'multi-function' NPs and much money was spent on infrastructure, some staff training and increased personnel. The 'lesser' protected areas such as "game reserves" and "Nature Reserves" still had few staff and resources, and that has continued to the present. There was some habitat loss from protected areas through illegal logging, agricultural encroachment and other off-take, but the NPs of Java (several of which contain ideal habitat for Banteng and, at least into the mid 1990s, large populations) remained remarkably close to intact for much of the period. During the 1980s and early to mid 1990s guns were tightly controlled and the military and police were feared and respected. The strong culture of caged bird keeping meant that hunting, including that within protected areas, was primarily for birds and some smaller mammals, through various forms of trapping, including snaring. Thus there was relatively little hunting of Banteng and populations were stable or even increasing. Socio-political changes from 1997 led to a reduction in the respect for the police and military and the rise of a viewpoint that protected areas were the people's resources and would therefore benefit from decentralised management (M. Tyson pers. comm. 2008). This policy change, which risked a ‘tragedy of the commons’, has indeed led to increased destruction and poaching in the past two decades.

The Directorate of Species and Genetic Biodiversity Conservation (KKHSG) and the Indonesian Zoo Association (PKBSI) are leading the Javan Banteng metapopulation management approach through the Action Indonesia Global Species Management Plan (GSMPs), which aims to coordinate cooperation between national and international conservation institutions to increase ex situ and in situ populations. Currently, Javan Banteng metapopulation management activities are being carried out in four NPs, namely Baluran NP, Alas Purwo NP, Meru Betiri NP, and Ujung Kulon NP, to understand the current population conditions in each park and maximize genetic diversity in each subpopulation. Conservation actions have included two years of park wide camera trap monitoring in Alas Purwo NP, long term monitoring for Banteng in Baluran NP, and work with Ujung Kulon and Meru Betiri NPs to align Banteng data for a consistent monitoring method. Conducting systematic and consistent surveys across the Banteng home range using robust methods (such as camera trapping with Random Encounter Model) is recommended. In 2023 and 2024, the four parks are working together to conduct biopsy sampling on Banteng individuals in order to identify their genetic diversity. This programme is expected to improve island-wide management of Banteng in Java as a unitary population to allow the wild population to increase.

The Sabah Wildlife Department published the Bornean Banteng Action Plan for Sabah 2019–2028 in 2018 (Sabah Wildlife Department 2019). The seven major non site-specific priority objectives include: law enforcement and patrolling to combat the poaching threat; to establish a captive breeding and cryopreservation programme in Sabah in order to conserve the remnant genetic diversity and increase numbers for future reintroduction; to maintain suitable habitat for Bantengs and prevent further loss and degradation; to establish and maintain landscape connectivity throughout the range of Banteng in Sabah; to conduct research on hunting prevalence and trends; to provide education and raise awareness with relevant stakeholders in the vicinity of protected areas; to establish an Endangered Species Conservation Unit that will monitor the implementation of the action/conservation plans. Further site-specific priority actions are also identified for each of the four management units.

A large feral population of Banteng exists in the northern territories of Australia, however, this is thought to be derived from Bali cattle (Bradshaw et al. 2006). Three zoological associations manage ex situ populations of Banteng (Bos javanicus javanicus). The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (population size = 20), the European Association of Zoos and Aquariums (population size = 108), and the Indonesian Zoo Association (PKBSI; population size = 65). They all participate in a Global Species Management Plan to cooperatively manage the species at global level to ensure long-term demographic and genetic viability.