This species is found in northeastern Afghanistan, northern India (southwest Jammu and Kashmir), northern and central Pakistan, southern Tajikistan, southwestern Turkmenistan, and southern Uzbekistan (Grubb 2005).

Capra falconeri falconeri

Afghanistan: historically occurred in the eastern portion of the country, in the high mountainous, monsoon forests of Laghman (headwaters of Alingar and Alishang Rivers); Kunar and Nuristan (Habibi 1977, Petocz 1972, Petocz and Larsson 1977) and is still extant at least in south central Nuristan (WCS 2008, Stevens et al. 2011).

India: restricted to part of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir (Ranjitsinh et al. 2005, Bhatnagar et al. 2007, Bhatnagar et al. 2009). Populations are scattered throughout this range, starting from just east of the Banihal pass (50 km from the Chenab River) on the Jammu-Srinagar highway westward to the disputed border with Pakistan. Bhatnagar et al. 2009 observed Markhor only in Kajinag and Hirpura, and confirmed evidence of their occurrence in Boniyar and Poonch. In the areas of Shamsabari and Banihal Pass the taxon is likely extinct.

Pakistan: a detailed study on the past and present distribution of “Kashmir” Markhor by Arshad (2011) showed that the area of occupancy and the number of locations have declined greatly (approx. 70%) during the 20^th century. However, historic ranges larger than present ranges are partly a result of too much generalization in the older distribution maps, which include large sections of unsuitable habitat. It is not clear to what extent exchange takes place between the often small groups of Markhor inhabiting different watersheds. Flare-horned Markhor are mainly confined to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the valleys of the Kunar (Chitral) river and its tributaries. According to Schaller and Khan (1975), along the Indus River, Markhor inhabited both banks from Jalkot (District Kohistan) upstream to near the Tungas village (District Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit on the Gilgit River, Chalt and (Haraspo) Sikandarabad on the Hunza River, and the Parishing Valley on the Astor River. Currently, Markhor are known from various locations in the Diamer, Astor, Gilgit and Baltistan Districts. Markhor are found along the Nagar Hunza River from Sikandarabad downstream, in Naltar Valley, along the Gilgit River downstream from Singul and along the Indus River downstream from Basho to the provincial border with Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa (WCS, Mayoor Khan pers. comm. 2014). Markhor are known to be present in the Juglot Ghooro, Rahimabad and Haramosh valleys in Central Karakoram National Park (Athar A. Khan and Syed Yasir Abbas, Ecologist, Central Karakoram National Park, pers. comm. 2014). The population in Haramosh was considered extinct by Arshad (2011), but since winter 2011 Markhor have been observed there (Athar A. Khan and Syed Yasir Abbas, pers. comm. 2014), possibly indicating natural recolonization. The distribution range in Gilgit-Baltistan has been updated based on information from various sources (WCS, Mayoor Khan pers. comm. 2014). In Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Flare-horned Markhor were found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan where it inhabited valleys along the Kunar River (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho River, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj River (Schaller and Khan 1975). The distribution range in Chitral has been updated based on Arshad (2011), and includes side valleys of the Indus River upstream from Dubair, the Shishi River Valley as well as the Chitral River Valley and its tributaries upstream from Chitral up to Kaghozi Gol (Mastuj River Valley) and Shogore (Lutkho River Valley).


Capra falconeri heptneri

This subspecies previously occupied most of the mountains lying along the banks of the Upper Amu Darya and the Pyanj Rivers from Turkmenistan to Tajikistan. Currently, it is found in only two or three scattered populations and its distribution has been greatly reduced (Weinberg et al. 1997). The subspecies was confirmed to occur as well in Afghanistan on the bank of the Pyanj River (Moheb and Mostafawi 2011, 2012).

Afghanistan: almost nothing was known of this subspecies or its distribution before 1979 (Habibi 1977). Reconnaissance surveys and interviews with villagers have shown that, across from the two strongholds of Markhor in Tajikistan, this subspecies exists but in very low numbers in the Darwaz Region (Kof Ab district, ~ 38°02’ N, 70°23’ E) of Badakhshan Province, and in Shahr-e Buzurg District and neighboring Chah Ab District of Takhar Province (~ 37°31’ N, 70°02’ E). The Markhor seem to cross the Pyanj River (which forms the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan; Moheb and Mostafawi 2011, 2012).

Tajikistan: limited to the region along the Pyanj River east of Kulyab, southern Hazratishoh range (~ 70°05' E and 37°54' N), including the Kushvariston massif (~ 70°03' E, 37°35' N) and the Pasi Parvor mountains (~ 70°16' E, 37°44' N), and the eastern slope of the southwestern edge of the Darvaz range (~ 70°21' E, 38°05' N, Shuroabad  district of Khatlon Region and Darvaz district of GBAO Region). Formerly markhor were reported from the Babatag Mountains (~ 68°03' E, 37°46' N) at the border with Uzbekistan (Ishunin 1972) and from the Sanglak and Sarsarak Ranges (southern parts of the Vakhsh Range, ~ 69°7' E, 38°13' N) (Abdusalyamov 1988). No recent reliable information suggests that Markhor still exist in the Babatag (Michel et al. 2014). The presence of Markhor in the Sarsarak Range was confirmed in 2014, but the species has been extirpated from the Sanglak Mountains (Khalil Karimov, Panthera, pers. comm. 2014).

Uzbekistan: found in the Kugitang Range (~ 66°36' E, 37°48' N) at the border with Turkmenistan. Its occurrence was reported in the middle of the 20^th century from the Babatag Range (~ 68°03' E, 37°46' N) at the border with Tajikistan (Bogdanov 1992).

Turkmenistan: restricted to the western slope of the Kugitang Range (~ 66°31' E, 37°49' N), bordering Uzbekistan (~66°40’ E, 37°30’ N; Weinberg et al. 1997a). 


Capra falconeri megaceros

In Afghanistan, at least until 1978, this subspecies survived in the Kabul Gorge (Kabul Province) and the Kohe Safi area of Parwan Province, and possibly in some isolated pockets of Paktia Province. Intensive hunting pressure had forced it into the most inaccessible regions of its once wider range (Petocz et al. 1977, Valdez, 2008). No recent information is available on whether or not the subspecies is still extant in Afghanistan.

In Pakistan, the most comprehensive study of the distribution and status of the Straight-horned Markhor was published by Schaller and Khan (1975). The study showed a huge past range for this subspecies, but the actual range in Pakistan at that time consisted only of small isolated areas in Baluchistan Province, a small area in the former Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP), and one unconfirmed occurrence in Dera Ghazi Khan District (Punjab Province). Virk (1991) summarized the information for Baluchistan Province, and confirmed the subspecies’ presence in the area of the Koh-i-Sulaiman (Zhob District) and the Takatu hills (Quetta District), both according to Ahmad (1989). The presence of Straight-horned Markhor in the Torghar hills of the Toba Kakar range (Zhob District) has been repeatedly confirmed and it is possible that currently this area holds the only population consisting of more than 100 individuals of this subspecies (Tareen 1990, Frisina and Tareen 2009, Arshad and Khan 2009). Qadir Shah et al. (2010) and Mazhar Liaqat (2013) confirmed the presence of Straight-horned Markhor in the Ziarat Mountains in Ziarat District of Baluchistan Province. The NWFP Forest Department (NWFP 1987, 1992) considered that the areas of Mardan and Sheikh Buddin were still inhabited by the subspecies. There is no recent information about the Safed Koh range (Kurram and Khyber Districts) where, according to Schaller and Khan (1975) probably at least 100 animals lived on the Pakistan side of the border with Afghanistan in the early 1970s.

All subspecies and populations of Capra falconeri were uplisted from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES in 1992. The 10^th meeting of the Conference of Parties to CITES in 1997 passed a resolution (Conf. 10.15) allowing for an annual export quota of six Markhor trophies from Pakistan’s community-based hunting management areas to states parties to CITES. CITES increased the annual export quota to 12 in 2002, to further encourage community-based conservation (Resolution Conf. 10.15 (Rev. CoP 14)). The EU Scientific Review Group has expressed a positive opinion on the import of Markhor trophies from well-managed conservancies in Tajikistan (EU SRG 2014).

Within Afghanistan, the species was protected nominally in 2004 (WCS 2008) by a nationwide presidential decree banning hunting, but this ban was not generally enforced. In 2009 the species was listed on Afghanistan’s Protected Species List, making any hunting or trade within the country illegal. The species does not occur in any protected areas. Proposed conservation measures include:

• identify remaining populations, their distribution and numbers;
• facilitate the development of community-based conservation in areas with extant populations or with potential for immigration of Markhor from neighboring countries and establish conservation incentives;
• raise public awareness about the conservation importance of the country’s Markhor populations and potential benefits from their sustainable use;
• develop trans-boundary collaboration between nature conservation authorities and community based initiatives, including the prevention of cross-border poaching (Petocz 1972; Petocz and Larsson 1977; Valdez 2008; Moheb and Mostafawi 2011, 2012; Michel et al. 2014). Urgent measures are required to conserve the straight-horned “Kabul” Markhor C. f. megaceros if still extant. Surveys to assess numbers and distribution are important. Local people’s support for its conservation is essential, but this will be difficult to obtain, as the initiation of community-based hunting management is currently not possible due to the hunting ban and the difficult security situation in the area.

In India, Markhor is a fully protected (Schedule I) species under Jammu and Kashmir’s Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978 (Ganhar 1979). Currently, Markhor in India occur in only three small protected areas: the Limber Game Reserve, and the Lachipora and Hirapora Wildlife Sanctuaries. Conservation measures proposed include:

• raise awareness among the army, policy makers and local people about the rarity of the Markhor and the importance of the region for its conservation;
• the largest Markhor population, in Kajinag, merits the establishment of a protected refuge and the state’s Wildlife Department has already initiated a move to set up the Kajinag National Park;
• involve local people, especially nomadic herders and the armed forces, in the conservation of Markhor, including the realigning of grazing practices so that important areas of Markhor habitat are excluded from grazing, and as much as possible mitigating the larger impacts due to fencing and insurgency (Bhatnagar et al. 2009);
• consider future re-introductions to previously inhabited ranges in the Pir Panjal mountains.

In Pakistan, the Markhor is completely protected by federal law (Rao 1986). In 1991, the Federal government imposed a 3-year ban on all big game hunting. This ban officially lapsed in 1993 but practically remained in effect, although it was ignored in the case of community-based trophy hunting programs (Shackleton 2001). The central government has issued permits only where a community-based trophy hunting program has been established; as of 2000, 80% of the permit fees were mandated to go to the community and 20% to provincial authorities in charge of nature conservation (although inter-community and provincial-federal disputes over receipts and permitting have occurred). The program continued through 2013 with trophy price for Markhor increasing from US $ 18,000 to about US $ 80,000-100,000. According to official records, between 1998 and 2008 approximately US $ 830,000 was distributed to communities within the former NWFP from hunter remittances from the 17 Markhor taken during this period (A. Khan unpublished data, NWFP Wildlife Management, 2008). With higher trophy fees during the last years, significantly higher contributions to the local communities have created substantial incentives for the conservation of Markhor in the participating conservancies. However, the small number of permits issued by the government (up to 12 per annum in accordance to the CITES export quota) may prevent an extension of the approach into still unmanaged areas.

In Pakistan several protected areas contain Flare-horned Markhor: Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa - Chitral District: Chitral Gol NP, Drosh Gol GR, Gahirat Gol GR, Goleem Gol GR, Goleen Gol GR, Purit Gol- Chinar Gol GR, Tushi GR (NWFP 1992); Swat District: Totalai GR (Zool. Survey Dept., 1987). Gilgit-Baltistan – Central Karakoram NP (in Hunza-Nagar, Gilgit and Skardu Districts) Gilgit District: Kargah WS, Naltar WS, Danyore GR, Sherqillah GR. (Rasool, no date); Astor District: Astor WS, Tangir GR (Rasool, no date); Baltistan District: Baltistan WS, Askor Nallah GR (Rasool no date). Azad Jammu and Kashmir - Muzaffarabad: Mauji CR, Qazi Nag GR, Hillan CR (Zool. Survey Dept. 1986); Poonch District: Phala GR (Qayyum 1986). Only one protected area is known to contain straight-horned markhor in Pakistan: Sheikh Buddin NP (previously a Wildlife Sanctuary) in Dera Ismail Khan District of NWFP (Zoological Survey Dept. 1987). The status of the subspecies in protected areas in Baluchistan is uncertain. Its occurrence is not confirmed in Chiltan-Hazarganji NP, and there is no reliable information for either Sasnamana or Ziarat Juniper WS’s. There are no reports of markhor in protected areas in Punjab.

The Torghar Conservation Project in Baluchistan has reduced poaching and competition by livestock (Johnson 1997; Frisina and Tareen 2009); the markhor population in this area is reported to have increased steadily since initiation of the program (Rosser et al. 2005, Frisina and Tareen 2009, Frisina, Montana State University, pers. comm. 2014). The TCP is the oldest community-controlled program in Pakistan and has been so successful that tribal groups in other mountain ranges of Baluchistan have expressed interest in setting up similar programs (Frisina and Tareen 2009, Ahmed et al. 2001).

Throughout Diamer, southern Gilgit, and Astore Districts of Gilgit-Baltistan community based conservation programs aimed at Markhor conservation have created over 40 community conservation organizations and 18 registered conservancies, and trained and deployed over 100 community rangers. Markhor are now well-protected and appear to be experiencing a significant recovery (WCS 2012).

Proposed conservation measures include:

• treat Kargah Wildlife Sanctuary as a focal area for Markhor and enforce protection measures. Kargah is probably the best place for Markhor in the Gilgit District, and like the Chitral Gol, should be rather easy to control because it is a traditional wildlife sanctuary and is close to Gilgit;
• adopt a similar procedure for the area around Bagheecha in the Indus valley, which is one of the best places in Baltistan for Markhor and also relatively easy to control and to the Haramosh and Sikandarabad valleys (in Hunza-Nagar District) in the region of Central Karakoram National Park;
• develop a conservation and management plans that includes information on the status and distribution of C. f. megaceros in the areas it still inhabits outside the Torghar conservancy; consider the area of Koh-e Sulaiman and the Takatu hills as a focal area for conservation efforts and include participatory management in the tribal areas in this plan;
• retain the hunting ban (with its exception for approved community-based trophy hunts);
• encourage the development of community-based hunting management areas in currently unmanaged areas and buffer zones of national parks, and consider a slight increase of the annual quota to ensure more equitable access to benefits from trophy hunts for all conservancies (with quota set on the basis of monitoring results).

In Tajikistan, Dashtijum Strict Nature Reserve (zapovednik) with an area of almost 20,000 ha was established in 1973, but since the early 1990s poaching has become common, and the security situation deteriorated due to incursions by Afghans (Michel 2010, Moheb and Mostafawi 2011). Markhor are legally protected, but hunting by foreigners was permitted (at least two Markhor/year) in the early 1990s (Weinberg et al. 1997). For the hunting season 2013-2014 the Government of Tajikistan issued a hunting quota of six Markhor, and five were taken by foreign hunters. Hunts are restricted to conservancies established and managed by local small family businesses and community based non-governmental organizations. About 80% of the Markhor recorded by the recent survey (Alidodov et al. 2014) were in these conservancies. All captive Markhor in Dashtijum and Romit Strict Nature Reserves and the introduced animals in Romit were poached during civil unrest during the 1990s.

Proposed conservation measures include:

• strengthening community-based conservation and management through secure rights and obligations for conservancies, issuing of area-specific hunting quotas based on survey results, issuing of import permits for hunting trophies and sharing of benefits with local communities;
• prevention of assignment of hunting rights to non-locals and business structures and of illegal trophy hunts;
• reducing poaching through trans-boundary collaboration, community-based hunting management and law enforcement;
• reducing the risk of disease transmission from domestic sheep and goats by implementing grazing regulations minimizing direct and indirect transmission risks, monitoring the presence of infectious agents in domestic stock and implementing efficient vaccinations on domestic sheep and goats at least against CCPP and Peste des Petits Ruminant disease;
• preservation of the quality of habitat through regulation of forest use and grazing.

In Turkmenistan the species is legally protected. Markhor occur in the Kugitang Strict Nature Reserve (zapovednik), established in 1986 and covering about 27,000 ha. Lukarevsky (2002) suggested that ecotourism and trophy hunting may provide incentives for the conservation of Markhor. Weinberg et al. (1997) suggested enlarging the Kugitang Strict Nature Reserve because it protects only the high elevation summer habitat of Markhor and the currently unprotected lower winter ranges are grazed by livestock. Critical for any consideration of a potential trophy hunting programme would be the full involvement of local community members and a benefit sharing mechanism which would ensure their support.

In Uzbekistan, trophy hunting of Markhor took place in the 1990s (e.g. two in 1994; Weinberg et al. 1997) and until about 2005, including hunting in an enclosure containing a small captive group, which no longer exists (S. Zagrebin pers. comm. 2013). The EU Scientific Review Group in 2006 expressed a negative opinion on the import of Markhor trophies originating from the wild, which led to a suspension of trade in 2007. Markhor in Uzbekistan occur in the Surkhan Strict Nature Reserve (zapovednik). With assistance by a UNDP/GEF project during 2008-13 a managed buffer zone was established, encompassing all current Markhor habitat outside the strict nature reserve. Collaboration between the Kugitang (Turkmenistan) and Surkhan Strict Nature Reserves would be of utmost importance for the conservation management of this trans-boundary subpopulation.