Alpine Ibex typically inhabit open, rocky habitats above the upper tree-line ecotone in Alpine massifs. Steep slopes with rugged topography and meadows and pastures are preferred. Below the tree line, at subalpine levels, ibex are only found in open, sunny woodland interspersed with rocky outcrop. Ibex mainly feed on alpine grasses and herbs, but woody plants and cryptogams in low quantities have also been reported (Couturier 1962, Hofmann and Nievergelt 1972, Nievergelt and Zingg 1986, Villaret et al. 1997, Pedrotti and Lovari 1999, Grignolio et al. 2003).

Ibex activity peaks during daylight hours and is reduced during the night (Signer et al. 2011). The Alpine Ibex shows seasonal migration between summer and winter home ranges. They spend the harsh winter months at lower elevations on south-exposed steep slopes, while they select higher altitudes in summer, following the green-up wave and seeking lower temperatures (Aublet et al. 2009, Brivio et al. 2019). Winter and summer home ranges may be several kilometres distant, but individuals show a high fidelity to seasonal home ranges (Parrini et al. 2003). Males and females live in separate groups outside the rutting season (Villaret et al. 1997, Bon et al. 2001, Grignolio et al. 2003). Group size largely depends on the season, the habitat and the population density (Toïgo et al. 1996), even if it can be affected by other environmental drivers (Grignolio et al. 2019).

Gestation lasts about 167 days (Stüwe and Grodinsky 1987). Females give birth from early June to mid-July, usually to one kid even if some cases of twinship have been reported (Couturier 1962, Apollonio et al. 2013). Males and females are sexually mature when 18 months old. However, males can access reproduction only at older ages because of social constraints, and the age of females at primiparity may be delayed in high-density populations (Toïgo et al. 2002). The rut takes place from early December to mid-January, with a peak between the 15th of December and the 10th of January (Couturier 1962, Willisch and Neuhaus 2009, 2010; Apollonio et al. 2013). Dominant (i.e. older) males adopt the ‘tending’ tactic, courting oestrous females to gain exclusive access to mating, while younger, subordinate, males adopt the alternative ‘coursing’ tactic, trying to achieve temporary access to females who eventually are separated from the tending, dominant male (Willisch and Neuhaus 2009, Apollonio et al. 2013). Maximum longevity is up to 15–17 years for males and 20–22 years for females, even if rare exceptions have been reported for older individuals.

The Alpine Ibex is endemic to Europe, where its native range is the Alps (Shackleton 1997, Grubb 2005). The species was driven very close to extinction in the early 19th century due to overhunting and poaching. As a result of active protection and reintroduction programmes, the species is nowadays present again across the entire Alpine arc. All current populations originate from reintroductions or introductions, except for the population in the Gran Paradiso National Park (Italy). Alpine Ibex populations are present in France, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. Although the range of Alpine Ibex has increased over the last century as a result of translocations and few natural recolonizations, its distribution is still fragmented because of the very long recolonization time of the species. Alpine Ibex mainly occurs between 1,600 and 3,200 m asl although several populations may be found as low as 700–800 m asl (Nievergelt and Zingg 1986).

Additional Ibex populations can be found in Bulgaria and Argentina, regions where it was introduced around the 1980s, far from the species’ native range.

The Alpine Ibex is included in the Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix III – Protected Fauna Species, 1979) and in the European Directive 43/92/CEE “Habitat”, Annex V (Updated with Directive 97/62/CE, 27 Oct 1997). The species is protected under national legislation in France and Italy and occurs in several protected areas in most countries.

The species has been the subject of intensive conservation management in the form of reintroductions and introductions (Stüwe and Nievergelt 1991, Shackleton 1997). Reintroductions began at the beginning of the 20th century in the Swiss Alps and in the Alpi Marittime region (Italy) but most reintroductions have been conducted from the 1970s (Dupré et al. 2001).

Most recent recommendations for the conservation of the Alpine Ibex strongly emphasize the need (1) to reinforce the genetic diversity of existing populations by translocating individuals from other populations, and (2) to enhance the connectivity between populations by reintroducing individuals in areas potentially connecting two populations. A particular focus has to be exerted on the genetic characteristics of translocated individuals to maximize genetic diversity in the reinforced population. A good knowledge of the space use patterns within and between subpopulations is a prerequisite for translocations aimed at increasing the connectivity between them.

Reintroductions to suitable areas where the Alpine Ibex is still absent should also be planned to ensure a safe future for this species. For such reintroductions, as recommended earlier by Shackleton (1997) and Dupré et al. (2001), it would be appropriate (1) using reliable environmental suitability models for the selection of areas where Alpine Ibex colonies could be reintroduced. These models should particularly take into account the availability of areas where overheating during summer may be avoided; (2) conducting a translocation strategy that aims to make the separate colonies part of a metapopulation; (3) giving priority to protected areas, or at least to areas capable of guaranteeing efficient surveillance against poaching and disturbance (this does not mean that controlled hunting areas should be excluded a priori); (4) selecting founder individuals for new colonies according to specific criteria (sex, age, genetic diversity); (5) limiting or even possibly eliminating domestic sheep and goat grazing in reintroduction areas to decrease the risk of disease transmission, resource competition, and hybridization; and (6) screening the suitability of reintroduction sites in relation to the absence of endemic diseases. Other conservation recommendations include ensuring that any harvest should be sustainable (through monitoring, legislation, and international cooperation), eliminating poaching (through legislation, law enforcement, education and communication), reducing the impacts of human disturbance (e.g. by providing refuges in areas with intense tourism pressure), monitoring all populations and investigating the effects of global changes.