Rangifer tarandus inhabits arctic and subarctic tundra, open alpine habitats, and open boreal forest. Reindeer have adapted to these harsh and low productive but highly seasonal environments by developing flexible foraging and behavioural strategies, including seasonal movements (at different scales). During winter, Reindeer feed heavily on lichens, ground lichens as well as arboreal lichens, if available. The summer forage contains grass, sedges, herbs and leaves of willows and birch, while in autumn they also feed on mushrooms.

Rangifer’s behaviour, physiology and life history have been formed to efficiently acquire and process nutrients and to accumulate energy reserves during a short but lush summer and to withstand the upcoming harsh and thermal stressful winter conditions.

Today, Reindeer are found in Europe in small pockets in south-central Norway (covering a total of around 50,000 km²), on Svalbard (20,000 km²), central Finland (55,000 km²), and in the northern European part of Russia (250,000 km²), as well as Novaya Zemlya (30,000 km²). Indeed, in Europe, wild subpopulations of the Reindeer have a fragmented distribution. In south-central Norway, the range is fragmented into 24 management units, the largest being Hardangervidda covering 8,100 km², followed by Setesdal Ryfylke (6,100 km²), Ottadalsområdet (4,550 km²) and Rondane (3,600 km²).

Svalbard Reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus) inhabit most of the non-glaciated areas of the Svalbard Archipelago with the largest ranges found on Nordenskiöld Land, Nordaustlandet, Edgeøya and Barentsøya (Le Moullec et al. 2019). In Finland, wild forest Reindeer occur in two isolated subpopulations, one in the west and one in eastern Finland. The Kainuu population bordering Russia inhabits around 15,000 km², whereas the western population found in Suomenselkä ranges within an area of around 40,000 km² (I. Kojola pers. comm.).

In Russia, the forest Reindeer are now separated into two isolated populations: Karelia and East European (Mizin et al. unpubl. and Danilov et al.2018), those populations themselves being considerably fragmented covering an estimated range of 120,000 km². On the Kola Peninsula, the western mountain-tundra Reindeer population is mainly found within the Lapland State Nature Reserve (19,000 km²). The Novaya Zemlya subspecies R.t. pearsoni is found on both the northern and southern islands with an estimated range of 30,000 km² available.

Semi-domesticated Reindeer are widespread in the northern part of Fennoscandia and in the European part of Russia, with a winter population of around 800,000 (Holand et al. 2022). Reindeer were introduced to eastern Iceland in the late 1700s where a feral population exists in the eastern part of Iceland counting around 5,000 heads (Skarphedinn 2018). The ranges of these semi-domesticated populations and the Icelandic feral population are not shown on the distribution map.

Globally, Rangifer tarandus has a circumpolar distribution inhabiting high arctic, the tundra and the taiga regions of northern Europe, Siberia and North America, across the Holarctic (Gunn 2016). Its range covers many millions of km² in Alaska, Canada and Siberia. However, its functional range is shrinking and the total population has been slightly declining in the last decades.

The heavily fragmented habitats through northern Europe being continuously encroached by expanding human activity and exploitation (Panzacchi et al. 2015, Danilov et al. 2018) imply that management and conservation of the remaining Rangifer populations centre around protection of their ranges. Indeed, keeping up the animals’ flexible range use is essential for viable populations. Strict spatial planning regimes must be implemented. The cumulative effects of all kinds of infrastructure; industrial activity, forestry, tourism etc., must be included in the planning process and restoration of fragmented ranges considered.

Today most European Reindeer populations are embraced in management or conservation plans and their conservation status are internationally, nationally and regionally recognised. Indeed, Reindeer is a high-profile species given high priority in all three European countries hosting them. The Finnish forest reindeer populations are strictly protected under Annex II of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. In Finland, a large fence has been constructed between areas occupied by semi-domesticated reindeer and forest reindeer, to prevent hybridisation, and a Finnish-Russian Nature Reserve has been established to secure the border population of forest Reindeer. In Russia, several State Nature Reserves are established partly for hosting forest Reindeer. Also, in Norway, several of the wild tundra populations roam within National Parks. Most of the Svalbard Archipelago is protected as National Parks and Reserves, making the Svalbard reindeer a well-protected population area-wise. In Russia the northern part of Novaya Zemlya is part of the Russian Arctic National Park, probably encompassing native Novaya Zemlya reindeer (Mizin et al. 2018).

Forest and tundra Reindeer in the European part of northern Russia have suffered severe to moderate declines the last decades (Danilov et al. 2018). The total hunting of Reindeer was completely banned in Murmansk, Karelia, Arkhangelsk, Nenets and Komi regions in 2020 (Korolev et al. 2021). However, poaching is a severe threat to these small populations (Korolev et al. 2021). Hunting is the main mortality factor in Norway and is strictly regulated. It is argued that hunting is critical to keep the numbers below carrying capacity in these confined and almost predator-free environments. The total yearly cull has varied between 4,000 and 8,000 animals in the last decades (Reimers 2018). On Svalbard limited hunting take place near the main settlements, Longyearbyen and Barentsburg. In Finland, hunting is strictly regulated and enforced, and only a few licenses are issued yearly.

Rapid landscape and environmental changes may challenge Rangifer’s ability to adapt. Therefore, permanent population monitoring including health and disease status must be given priority. For the Novaya Zemlya population status and trend must be identify for appropriate conservation actions.