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| Subspecies: | Unknown |
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| Est. World Population: | |
| CITES Status: | NOT LISTED |
| IUCN Status: | Least Concern |
| U.S. ESA Status: | NOT LISTED |
| Body Length: | |
| Tail Length: | |
| Shoulder Height: | |
| Weight: | |
| Top Speed: | |
| Jumping Ability: | (Horizontal) |
| Life Span: | in the Wild |
| Life Span: | in Captivity |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Females) |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Males) |
| Litter Size: | |
| Gestation Period: | |
Habitat:
Wolves live in diverse habitat types and their broad distribution ranges show the species' adaptability to the most extreme (both in terms of natural and anthropogenic factors) habitat conditions. The wolf’s habitat has been prosaically described as anywhere where humans do not kill it and where there is something to eat. Where wolves depend on wild ungulate prey, their habitat is that of their prey. Habitat quality should thus be interpreted in terms of human disturbance, prey densities and range size. In general, large forest areas are particularly suitable for wolves in Europe, although wolves are not exclusively a forest species.
The wolf has a very diversified diet and is a true generalist that feeds opportunistically on what is most available in its habitat. The wolf’s diet may include large prey, such as Moose, Red Deer, Roe Deer and Wild Boar, as well as small mammals and birds, invertebrates, vegetation and carcasses. Diet composition throughout the geographic range and seasonal variations depend on the relative abundance of potential prey, as well as accessibility and availability. A wolf typically requires 3-5 kg of meat per day, although it can fast for several days when food is not readily available.
The wolf has a very diversified diet and is a true generalist that feeds opportunistically on what is most available in its habitat. The wolf’s diet may include large prey, such as Moose, Red Deer, Roe Deer and Wild Boar, as well as small mammals and birds, invertebrates, vegetation and carcasses. Diet composition throughout the geographic range and seasonal variations depend on the relative abundance of potential prey, as well as accessibility and availability. A wolf typically requires 3-5 kg of meat per day, although it can fast for several days when food is not readily available.
Range:
Historically, Grey Wolves were found over most of Europe, including the British Isles. By the mid-20th century, their range was greatly reduced to remnants in northwest Iberia, central Italy, parts of the Baltics, the Carpathians, and the mountain areas of the Balkans. In the last 50 years, their range has greatly expanded with Grey Wolf presence being recorded in all continental European countries. The European Grey Wolf population is currently a large meta-population with several distinct populations, which can be described as follows (Chapron et al. 2014):
1. Iberian
Wolves are found mainly in the north-western quadrant and centre of Iberia (both Spain and Portugal). The Iberian population does not extend as far east as the Pyrenees (although some individuals are now recolonising the Pyrenees from the Alps, via France). Wolves are expanding southwards in Spain and are now found on both banks of the Duero River in both Spain and Portugal. The population segment in the Sierra Morena mountains in southern Spain seems to be extinct. The population segment in the Sierra Morena mountains in southern Spain seems to be extinct (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Alvares et al. 2015, Blanco and Cortés 2012, Jiménez et al. 2016, López-Bao et al. 2018).
2. Western-Central Alps
The population in 2021 occupies a large area that includes most of the Western Alps in France and Italy, with many wolf packs territories being transboundary along the French-Italian border and occupying large areas of south-eastern France up to the Massif Central, and in Italy to lowlands of Piemonte and Liguria, also far from the Alps. Increasing numbers of wolves are found in Switzerland and in eastern Alpine regions of Italy, with numbers rapidly building up in Veneto, Friuli Venezia-Giulia and Trentino, and will likely further expand through most of the central Alps. Several packs have been formed by individuals from the Alps and animals from the Dinaric-Balkan population, especially in the easternmost part of its range.
3. Italian peninsula
Wolves occur in the whole Apennines range from Liguria to Calabria (Aspromonte) and extending into the coastal plains along the Tirrenic and Adriatic coasts and to all hilly areas of northern Lazio and central-western Tuscany (provinces of Siena, Grosseto and Pisa).
4. Dinaric-Balkan
The population covers a vast area from Slovenia in the North to central Greece in the South, including the whole Dinaric Mountain range through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, western Serbia and Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Albania, the western and southern parts of Bulgaria and the European part of Türkiye.
5. Carpathian
The population extends across several countries, from northern Bulgaria and eastern Serbia through Romania, south-western Ukraine, Slovakia, south-eastern Poland and the eastern part of Czechia. Small (but increasing) numbers of wolves are also present in northern Hungary on the periphery of the distribution.
6. Baltic
This population covers the eastern lowlands of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and northern Ukraine and would naturally extend to Belarus and the neighbouring parts of the Russian Federation (including the oblasts of Kaliningrad, Leningrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Smolensk, Bryansk, Moscow, Kursk, Belgorod and Orel). However, the connectivity with Belarus and Russia is being increasingly reduced by the recent dramatic increase in border fence construction.
7. Karelian
Wolves occur in Finland (mainly in the southern half of the country) and Russian Karelia. The Karelian wolf population is the western extremity of the large Russian population. However, of the three main connectivity areas allowing continuity of the Russian Karelian population with the rest of Russia, one is completely blocked by megalopolis St. Petersburg and its satellites. Wolves in Russian Karelia are estimated to number about 300 and they are heavily hunted: bounties are paid and the annual wolf harvest is often equivalent to annual breeding.
8. Scandinavian
The distribution range of the population is in central Sweden and, to a lesser extent, in south-eastern Norway. It is spreading slowly toward southern Sweden but is being prevented from expanding in Norway because of government policy.
9. Central European
This population is expanding rapidly into the central European lowlands from its core in the western half of Poland and the eastern part of Germany. Several packs are also found in Czechia. Its expansion is likely to continue with packs being established in Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark.
1. Iberian
Wolves are found mainly in the north-western quadrant and centre of Iberia (both Spain and Portugal). The Iberian population does not extend as far east as the Pyrenees (although some individuals are now recolonising the Pyrenees from the Alps, via France). Wolves are expanding southwards in Spain and are now found on both banks of the Duero River in both Spain and Portugal. The population segment in the Sierra Morena mountains in southern Spain seems to be extinct. The population segment in the Sierra Morena mountains in southern Spain seems to be extinct (Blanco and Cortés 2002, Alvares et al. 2015, Blanco and Cortés 2012, Jiménez et al. 2016, López-Bao et al. 2018).
2. Western-Central Alps
The population in 2021 occupies a large area that includes most of the Western Alps in France and Italy, with many wolf packs territories being transboundary along the French-Italian border and occupying large areas of south-eastern France up to the Massif Central, and in Italy to lowlands of Piemonte and Liguria, also far from the Alps. Increasing numbers of wolves are found in Switzerland and in eastern Alpine regions of Italy, with numbers rapidly building up in Veneto, Friuli Venezia-Giulia and Trentino, and will likely further expand through most of the central Alps. Several packs have been formed by individuals from the Alps and animals from the Dinaric-Balkan population, especially in the easternmost part of its range.
3. Italian peninsula
Wolves occur in the whole Apennines range from Liguria to Calabria (Aspromonte) and extending into the coastal plains along the Tirrenic and Adriatic coasts and to all hilly areas of northern Lazio and central-western Tuscany (provinces of Siena, Grosseto and Pisa).
4. Dinaric-Balkan
The population covers a vast area from Slovenia in the North to central Greece in the South, including the whole Dinaric Mountain range through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, western Serbia and Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Albania, the western and southern parts of Bulgaria and the European part of Türkiye.
5. Carpathian
The population extends across several countries, from northern Bulgaria and eastern Serbia through Romania, south-western Ukraine, Slovakia, south-eastern Poland and the eastern part of Czechia. Small (but increasing) numbers of wolves are also present in northern Hungary on the periphery of the distribution.
6. Baltic
This population covers the eastern lowlands of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and northern Ukraine and would naturally extend to Belarus and the neighbouring parts of the Russian Federation (including the oblasts of Kaliningrad, Leningrad, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Smolensk, Bryansk, Moscow, Kursk, Belgorod and Orel). However, the connectivity with Belarus and Russia is being increasingly reduced by the recent dramatic increase in border fence construction.
7. Karelian
Wolves occur in Finland (mainly in the southern half of the country) and Russian Karelia. The Karelian wolf population is the western extremity of the large Russian population. However, of the three main connectivity areas allowing continuity of the Russian Karelian population with the rest of Russia, one is completely blocked by megalopolis St. Petersburg and its satellites. Wolves in Russian Karelia are estimated to number about 300 and they are heavily hunted: bounties are paid and the annual wolf harvest is often equivalent to annual breeding.
8. Scandinavian
The distribution range of the population is in central Sweden and, to a lesser extent, in south-eastern Norway. It is spreading slowly toward southern Sweden but is being prevented from expanding in Norway because of government policy.
9. Central European
This population is expanding rapidly into the central European lowlands from its core in the western half of Poland and the eastern part of Germany. Several packs are also found in Czechia. Its expansion is likely to continue with packs being established in Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark.
Conservation:
By default, the species is strictly protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix II) and Habitats Directive (Annex II and IV), meaning that wolves may not be killed except under strict conditions, and key wolf habitat must be protected as part of the European protected area networks Natura 2000 (Habitats Directive, Annex II) and Emerald Network (Bern Convention, Appendix II). However, there are many national and regional exceptions. Regarding the Habitats Directive:
1) in Spain, wolves north of the Duero River are not subject to Annexes II or IV, but covered instead by the more flexible regime of Annex V, which permits harvesting – and it remains uncertain which regimes apply to wolves east of the Duero River (Trouwborst 2014);
2) in Greece, wolves north of 39°N have a similar status (only Annex V);
3) in the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) wolves have a similar status (only Annex V);
4) in Finland, wolves occurring in the Reindeer herding area in northern Finland fall under Annex V; wolves outside the Reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV but not Annex II;
5) In Bulgaria and Slovakia, wolves are subject to Annex II and Annex V;
6) In Poland, wolves are also on Annex II and Annex V of the Habitats Directive, but strictly protected under the national legislations and government has not opened for harvest.
A similar set of diverse situations exist under the Bern Convention, with some countries having taken total exceptions (e.g. Finland) and others treating it as Appendix III instead of Appendix II.
In general, habitat restoration is required in some key areas (especially in southern Europe) in the form of fostering a healthy prey base and encouraging wolves to move back into their former range where appropriate. Conflicts with humans need to be addressed by involving local people in wolf management plans and through education programmes to increase people's understanding of wolf biology and behaviour. Problems resulting from wolves preying on domestic animals need to be tackled by livestock protection schemes and compensation systems. In general, there is a need for innovative governance regimes that balance the need for large-scale (international level) coordination of management with the need to give local stakeholders a voice in local-level solutions to local problems. Finally, there is a need to increase investment in population monitoring in many countries in southern and eastern Europe where the largest populations live. Details of specific conservation measures for European wolf populations are given below:
1. Iberian
Wolves are fully protected in Portugal and south of the Duero River in Spain. North of the Duero River in Spain, wolves were game species until 2021 and subject to various management regimes depending on the legislation of eight autonomous regional governments. Since 2021, the wolf is nationally protected by law. The autonomous regions are gradually approving their action plans. Asturias has a wolf management plan and Galicia and Castilla y León also have approved their plans. However, management coordination among the regional governments and between Spain and Portugal is very limited. By allowing the (virtual) extinction of the Sierra Morena population in southern Spain, Spain has been in contravention of its obligations under the Habitats Directive’s Annex II and Annex IV regimes, and EU law requires the Spanish authorities to restore this population (Trouwborst 2014).
2. Western-Central Alps
The population is fully protected under French, Italian and Swiss law. In France and Switzerland, the national Action Plans include provisions for the legal take of a certain number of wolves under strict conditions in response to damages on livestock. The three countries signed (2006) a formal agreement of cooperation for the management of the entire population, recognising that the biological population needs to be managed through a common and accepted approach, but the agreement has not produced any concrete cooperation at the administrative or political levels.
3. Italian peninsula
Fully protected by a national law, with damage compensation provided by 14 different regional laws. Compensation is paid for livestock lost to wolf predation, but the effectiveness of compensation programmes has never been assessed and it is increasingly questioned. Apart from formal protection the population is not actively managed. The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range but the size of these areas is far too small to protect any viable populations. In spite of formal protection, illegal killings are estimated to take a substantial portion of the population every year (up to 15-20%). A national Action Plan setting the broad strategic ground for management has been under discussion for several years (2015-2017) but has not been approved because of disagreement between the national and regional governments (Boitani and Salvatori 2016).
4. Dinaric-Balkan
Management is fragmented by multiple national laws. Most of the range is also outside the EU and therefore not bound by the protection of the Habitats Directive, although all range countries are now Bern Convention signatories. It is a game species in almost all countries, except for Slovenia, Croatia, Albania and Greece south of 39° latitude where wolves are fully protected. In Slovenia and Croatia, an effective Action Plan is in place and implemented (Štrbenac et al. 2005, http://www.mop.gov.si/fileadmin/mop.gov.si/pageuploads/podrocja/velike_zveri/akcijski_nacrt_upravljanja_volk_2013_2017.pdf) but no plans exists for any of the other countries. With the exception of Slovenia and Croatia, in general, law enforcement is weak or totally absent, institutions in several of the countries are not fully functional, there is very limited monitoring and research, and wildlife management structures for regulating hunter harvest of the prey base are poorly developed. There is a major need for investment in institution building in these countries.
5. Carpathian
In Slovakia wolves are a game species with a hunting season; in Poland and Czechia they are strictly protected by national laws; in Romania, they are legally protected, but are managed as a de facto game species with hunting quotas decided yearly; in Ukraine, wolves are neither a game species nor protected (often treated as “pest” species, with bounties of c. 20 Euro per individual) (Salvatori et al. 2002). There is a need to improve monitoring, especially in Slovakia, and ensure that quotas and seasons are scaled with respect to realistic population estimates.
6. Baltic
Wolves have been strictly protected in Poland since 1998, but are harvested in the three Baltic States (EU Habitats and Species Directive Appendix V) and in neighbouring Belarus and Ukraine. There is a new action plan for the conservation of the wolf in Latvia (2017). In all countries, there is a need to ensure that monitoring is effective at detecting trends in population development so that hunting quotas and seasons can be adjusted accordingly.
7. Karelian
In Finland, wolves occurring in the reindeer herding area fall under Annex V of the Habitats Directive; those outside the reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV. Finland has a National Management Plan that includes the removal of some wolves under controlled circumstances. In Russian Karelia, wolves are killed throughout the range and at any time. In spite of the small number of wolves, Finland has approved a plan to maintain the population within the maximum of 25 packs. The discontinuous flow of dispersing wolves from Russia allows a reasonable but cautiously positive forecast on the conservation of this population. Illegal killing of wolves remains a major problem in Finland. There are also widespread social and political conflicts that centre on wolf conservation.
8. Scandinavian
Wolves are fully protected in Sweden and Norway; however, Norway applies both a zoning system and operates with a very low management goal that restricts wolves to a small area (c. 5% of the country) along the border with Sweden and prevents population expansion. Both Norway and Sweden provide full compensation for damages. Both countries greatly restrict the presence of wolves in the reindeer herding areas that cover the northern part of the peninsula. The main issue for the long-term viability of the population is inbreeding, which can only be improved by facilitating the movement of wolves through the northern reindeer herding areas of Norway, Sweden and Finland. Social and political conflicts around wolf management are intense.
9. Central European
Wolves are functionally protected in all countries. In Germany, conservation is implemented by the local authority but there is a certain degree of coordination at the federal level. In Poland, wolves are strictly protected since 1995. The main threats stem from the intense social and political conflicts around wolf management.
1) in Spain, wolves north of the Duero River are not subject to Annexes II or IV, but covered instead by the more flexible regime of Annex V, which permits harvesting – and it remains uncertain which regimes apply to wolves east of the Duero River (Trouwborst 2014);
2) in Greece, wolves north of 39°N have a similar status (only Annex V);
3) in the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) wolves have a similar status (only Annex V);
4) in Finland, wolves occurring in the Reindeer herding area in northern Finland fall under Annex V; wolves outside the Reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV but not Annex II;
5) In Bulgaria and Slovakia, wolves are subject to Annex II and Annex V;
6) In Poland, wolves are also on Annex II and Annex V of the Habitats Directive, but strictly protected under the national legislations and government has not opened for harvest.
A similar set of diverse situations exist under the Bern Convention, with some countries having taken total exceptions (e.g. Finland) and others treating it as Appendix III instead of Appendix II.
In general, habitat restoration is required in some key areas (especially in southern Europe) in the form of fostering a healthy prey base and encouraging wolves to move back into their former range where appropriate. Conflicts with humans need to be addressed by involving local people in wolf management plans and through education programmes to increase people's understanding of wolf biology and behaviour. Problems resulting from wolves preying on domestic animals need to be tackled by livestock protection schemes and compensation systems. In general, there is a need for innovative governance regimes that balance the need for large-scale (international level) coordination of management with the need to give local stakeholders a voice in local-level solutions to local problems. Finally, there is a need to increase investment in population monitoring in many countries in southern and eastern Europe where the largest populations live. Details of specific conservation measures for European wolf populations are given below:
1. Iberian
Wolves are fully protected in Portugal and south of the Duero River in Spain. North of the Duero River in Spain, wolves were game species until 2021 and subject to various management regimes depending on the legislation of eight autonomous regional governments. Since 2021, the wolf is nationally protected by law. The autonomous regions are gradually approving their action plans. Asturias has a wolf management plan and Galicia and Castilla y León also have approved their plans. However, management coordination among the regional governments and between Spain and Portugal is very limited. By allowing the (virtual) extinction of the Sierra Morena population in southern Spain, Spain has been in contravention of its obligations under the Habitats Directive’s Annex II and Annex IV regimes, and EU law requires the Spanish authorities to restore this population (Trouwborst 2014).
2. Western-Central Alps
The population is fully protected under French, Italian and Swiss law. In France and Switzerland, the national Action Plans include provisions for the legal take of a certain number of wolves under strict conditions in response to damages on livestock. The three countries signed (2006) a formal agreement of cooperation for the management of the entire population, recognising that the biological population needs to be managed through a common and accepted approach, but the agreement has not produced any concrete cooperation at the administrative or political levels.
3. Italian peninsula
Fully protected by a national law, with damage compensation provided by 14 different regional laws. Compensation is paid for livestock lost to wolf predation, but the effectiveness of compensation programmes has never been assessed and it is increasingly questioned. Apart from formal protection the population is not actively managed. The species occurs in several protected areas throughout its range but the size of these areas is far too small to protect any viable populations. In spite of formal protection, illegal killings are estimated to take a substantial portion of the population every year (up to 15-20%). A national Action Plan setting the broad strategic ground for management has been under discussion for several years (2015-2017) but has not been approved because of disagreement between the national and regional governments (Boitani and Salvatori 2016).
4. Dinaric-Balkan
Management is fragmented by multiple national laws. Most of the range is also outside the EU and therefore not bound by the protection of the Habitats Directive, although all range countries are now Bern Convention signatories. It is a game species in almost all countries, except for Slovenia, Croatia, Albania and Greece south of 39° latitude where wolves are fully protected. In Slovenia and Croatia, an effective Action Plan is in place and implemented (Štrbenac et al. 2005, http://www.mop.gov.si/fileadmin/mop.gov.si/pageuploads/podrocja/velike_zveri/akcijski_nacrt_upravljanja_volk_2013_2017.pdf) but no plans exists for any of the other countries. With the exception of Slovenia and Croatia, in general, law enforcement is weak or totally absent, institutions in several of the countries are not fully functional, there is very limited monitoring and research, and wildlife management structures for regulating hunter harvest of the prey base are poorly developed. There is a major need for investment in institution building in these countries.
5. Carpathian
In Slovakia wolves are a game species with a hunting season; in Poland and Czechia they are strictly protected by national laws; in Romania, they are legally protected, but are managed as a de facto game species with hunting quotas decided yearly; in Ukraine, wolves are neither a game species nor protected (often treated as “pest” species, with bounties of c. 20 Euro per individual) (Salvatori et al. 2002). There is a need to improve monitoring, especially in Slovakia, and ensure that quotas and seasons are scaled with respect to realistic population estimates.
6. Baltic
Wolves have been strictly protected in Poland since 1998, but are harvested in the three Baltic States (EU Habitats and Species Directive Appendix V) and in neighbouring Belarus and Ukraine. There is a new action plan for the conservation of the wolf in Latvia (2017). In all countries, there is a need to ensure that monitoring is effective at detecting trends in population development so that hunting quotas and seasons can be adjusted accordingly.
7. Karelian
In Finland, wolves occurring in the reindeer herding area fall under Annex V of the Habitats Directive; those outside the reindeer herding area fall under Annex IV. Finland has a National Management Plan that includes the removal of some wolves under controlled circumstances. In Russian Karelia, wolves are killed throughout the range and at any time. In spite of the small number of wolves, Finland has approved a plan to maintain the population within the maximum of 25 packs. The discontinuous flow of dispersing wolves from Russia allows a reasonable but cautiously positive forecast on the conservation of this population. Illegal killing of wolves remains a major problem in Finland. There are also widespread social and political conflicts that centre on wolf conservation.
8. Scandinavian
Wolves are fully protected in Sweden and Norway; however, Norway applies both a zoning system and operates with a very low management goal that restricts wolves to a small area (c. 5% of the country) along the border with Sweden and prevents population expansion. Both Norway and Sweden provide full compensation for damages. Both countries greatly restrict the presence of wolves in the reindeer herding areas that cover the northern part of the peninsula. The main issue for the long-term viability of the population is inbreeding, which can only be improved by facilitating the movement of wolves through the northern reindeer herding areas of Norway, Sweden and Finland. Social and political conflicts around wolf management are intense.
9. Central European
Wolves are functionally protected in all countries. In Germany, conservation is implemented by the local authority but there is a certain degree of coordination at the federal level. In Poland, wolves are strictly protected since 1995. The main threats stem from the intense social and political conflicts around wolf management.