European Mink are semi-aquatic, inhabiting densely vegetated banks of rivers, streams, lakes, marshes, and lagoons (Sidorovich et al. 1998; Maran et al. 1998a; Garin et al. 2002; Palazon et al. 2004, 2008; Palomares et al. 2017; Fournier et al. 2007) where they use both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. According to Sidorovich and Macdonald (2001), the highest density of European Mink was observed in small rivers (10-100 km long) where up to 10 individuals were found per 10 km of river in Belarus. In Spain, similar to Belarus, small and medium-size rivers provide optimal habitat for the species, especially the lower courses of rivers (up to 800 m altitude in the Ebro river basin; A. Gómez and M. Põdra, unpubl. data). Elsewhere European Mink sightings have been reported up to 1,120 m above sea level (Palazón et al. 2003), but they have not been recorded on the sea coast.

Typically, European Mink are restricted to habitats within 200 metres of freshwater but some exceptions have been noted (Danilov and Tumanov 1976). Sometimes they cross land to move between streams and rivers and they have been recorded visiting chicken farms some distance away from rivers (Zuberogoitia and Zabala 2003). Monitoring results on the island of Hiiumaa, and in France in the Landes de Gascogne region, show that European Mink sometimes moves from one river to another, especially males during the mating season when they search for females (P. Fournier and C. Chambrillon-Fournier per.s obs.; M. Põdra and S. Pitsal, pers. obs.). European Mink are also known to move away from watercourses (into forests and fields – habitats that are otherwise rarely visited) in response to aggression or direct attacks from American Mink (Sidorovich et al. 2000). Dispersing individuals are sometimes killed on roads far from aquatic habitats (Zuberogoitia and Zabala 2003; these authors suggest that animals found in these areas are probably transient non-territory holders, but little is known about them or their movements). Dens and resting sites are provided by tree roots, log cavities, heaps of stones, and vegetation (e.g. brambles, or reeds); in the south, or in summer, resting sites may be under bushes above ground like Rubus sp. (Palomares et al. 2017; Harrington and Maran in print, and references therein). Beaver activity, especially in watercourses transformed by human activity (canals), also offer shelter opportunities (burrows, lodges, dams etc.) (Sidorovich 1997). The European Mink is an opportunistic generalist carnivore that hunts both terrestrial and aquatic prey. Prey items include amphibians, crustaceans (crayfish), fish, small mammals, insects, and reptiles (Sidorovich et al. 1998; Maran et al. 1998a; Palazón et al. 2004, 2008; Põdra et al. 2013; reviewed in Harrington and Maran in print). Its diet varies according to habitat and season (Libois et al. 1998, Sidorovich et al. 2001, Põdra et al. 2012).

The European Mink is a seasonal breeder, mating only once a year, and has a polygynous/promiscuous mating system in which one male mates with several females and females may also mate with several males (Dunstone 1993). Males’ female-seeking behaviour begins early in winter, while female oestrus peaks in April (Kiik et al. 2017). Oestrus lasts on average 5 days and the females are polyoestrous, returning to heat up to three times if fertilisation fails (Moshonkin 1983). Gestation lasts normally 43 days, resulting in births in May-July (Kiik et al. 2017). Unlike some other mustelids (e.g. American Mink) they do not appear to have delayed implantation (Nagl et al. 2015). Both males and females become sexually mature at 9-10 months old (Youngman 1990, T. Maran unpub. data). Average litter size in captivity is between three and five (Ternovsky and Ternovskaya 1994, Amstislavsky et al. 2008, Põdra unpubl. data). Kiik et al. (2017) reported an average of 4.42 (±1.48 SD). In the Spanish breeding program, the average litter size is markedly lower: 2.96 (±1.04 SD) young per female (80 litters analysed between 2005 and 2020; Põdra, unpubl. data). Reported litter sizes in the wild are usually slightly lower than in captivity: Sidorovich (1997) reported an average of 3.8 young per female (range 2 - 6) for wild European Mink less than one month old in Belarus, and 2.4 young per female (range 1-5) more than 1 month old. Fournier-Chambrillon et al. (2010) reported an average of 3.4 (range 2-5) embryos in France and Spain. Litter sizes in captivity have been found to depend on female body condition and age, and the sex ratio at birth did not differ from 1:1 (Kiik et al. 2017). There are no data on pregnancy rates in the wild but an ongoing study in Spain suggests pregnancy rates can be above 90% (Põdra et al. unpub. data). Of more than 1,000 European Mink born at Tallinn Zoo, 85 (7.3%) died before reaching their first breeding season; most (93%) of the deaths occurred during the litter period (Kiik et al. 2017). There are few data on juvenile or adult survival in the wild, but wild populations tend to be dominated by young of the year and yearlings: for example, in Belarus 39% of 32 males and 25% of 18 females were aged < 1 year, and 33% and 25%, respectively, aged 1-2 years, while 6% and 12%, respectively, were over 4 years old (Sidorovich 1997). A similar age structure is reported by Danilov and Tumanov (1976) for a Russian population. In Spain, a high proportion of young animals was detected in the wild population (n=54): individuals prior to their first breeding season (class 0+) represented approximately half of all animals during the post-reproductive period (Mañas et al. 2016), and very similar results were obtained in France (Fournier-Chambrillon et al. 2022). At the same time, a high mortality rate of 0+ age class (50%) was calculated during the dispersal-winter period (Mañas et al. 2016).

It was commonly found in many European countries and was distributed over a large part of European Russia except the tundra and Kalmyk steppe (Heptner et al. 1967, Ternovskii and Ternovskaya 1994). There is some uncertainty regarding the history of the species distribution east of the Urals and whether or not the European Mink was initially a purely European endemic species is unclear (Anon. 1875, Kassal 2018, Harrington and Maran in print). There are no records of European Mink in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Portugal, Belgium, or many of the Balkan countries, although they are known to have occurred in Italy, Albania and the former republic of Yugoslavia (reviewed in Maran 2007).

The relatively recent discovery of European Mink in France (1839) and in northern Spain (1951) suggests late expansion of the species to the west (Youngman 1982, 1990; Michaux et al. 2005; the mechanism of expansion is debated but most likely the result of natural migration from Central Europe, reviewed in Zuberogoitia et al. 2016, Maran et al. 2017, and Harrington and Maran in print). However, over the last 150 years, the area occupied by European Mink has severely declined (Maran 2007, Maran et al. 2017). It is estimated that the current range of the European Mink is less than 3% of its former historical range (Harrington et al. 2018). The European Mink is now considered extinct in: Albania, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, mainland Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and in Austria (although there is debate regarding the historical presence of the species in the latter) (Maran et al. 2016). East of the Ural Mountains, European Mink was last seen in the Omsk Oblast in 1984 and they are considered regionally extinct there (currently they are listed on the regional Red List under the category “species that have become extinct from the territory of Omsk oblast and their natural occurrence has not been confirmed for over 30 years”, Omsk Red Book 2015, cited in Kassal 2018). The current status of European Mink in the Cis-Urals and Western Siberia, and whether or not they are present beyond the Omsk region, is unknown (Harrington and Maran in press) but they are assumed to be absent there (Kassal 2018).

The currently occupied range in Europe (as defined by the terrestrial limits set in past European Red List assessments) consists of a few isolated fragments which make up most of the species range in the wild: the species is present in northern Spain and south-western France, the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine, in isolated patches in Russia (Maran et al. 2017) and on Hiiumaa Island in Estonia (Põdra 2021). The size and geographical extent of remnant European Mink populations is uncertain but there is no evidence of a large population surviving in the wild. Also, out of the Pan-European region, small introduced populations exist on Kunashir Island in the Kuril Archipelago in Russia (Kisleyko et al. 2022) and probably, a small population is left in the Caucasus region of Russia (Skumatov 2017, Kiseleva 2018).

What is known of the geographical extent of each of the remaining populations is detailed below:
In Spain, European Mink appear to be mainly restricted to the Ebro river basin in Navarre, La Rioja and the Basque Country (mostly in the province of Álava) in the north of the country; low numbers are also present in eastern Castile and León (provinces of Burgos and Soria) and in Aragon (province of Zaragoza) (Gómez et al. 2011, Balmori et al. 2015, Põdra and Gómez 2018). The species has disappeared from the northern part of the Basque country and the Cantabric river basin in Navarre (approximately a quarter to a third of its original Spanish range); a few dispersing individuals have been detected there since the last IUCN Red List assessment was conducted in 2016, but no regular presence (Tragsatec 2019, I. Zuberogoitia, unpubl. data).

In France, the European Mink was present in around forty departments at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century (DIREN Aquitaine and Mission Vison d’Europe 2003, de Bellefroid and Rosoux 1998). Since then, French populations have declined drastically. In the 1950s, the European Mink was only present on the Atlantic coast, the Cher and the Loir-et-Cher. By the end of the 1980s, it was present in just over a tenth of the country, and by the end of the 1990s was only observed in 7 departments (Aquitaine and Charentes) (Maizeret et al. 1998, Maizeret et al. 2002). Thus, in just 20 years, the species has lost half of its range (DIREN Aquitaine and Mission Vison d’Europe 2003). Currently, the European Mink is present on the Charente watershed (in the Charente-Maritime and Charente departments), on the Tude in the Charente department and in the Lizonne in the Dordogne department (Dordogne watershed) and on the Adour watershed in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department (near the city of Bayonne) (DREAL 2021). The known range covers approximately 6,500 km² although the actual area of distribution may be wider as the species is particularly difficult to detect, especially in areas where it is present in low densities (updating knowledge of the species’ distribution in France is currently underway).

In Romania and Ukraine, the presence of European Mnk in the Danube and Dniester Deltas was re-confirmed relatively recently, based on the identification of skins in nearby villages, bycatch of Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus trappers, and preliminary sign surveys and live trapping (Gotea and Kranz 1999, Kranz et al. 2004, de Jongh et al. 2007). Live-trapping surveys between 2003 and 2011, 2012 and 2014, and from 2021 to 2024 (Marinov et al. 2012, M. Marinov unpub. data) confirm the presence of European Mink throughout the Romanian side of the Danube Delta and in the south of the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve in the lagoon complex. The capture of a single male in 2022 suggests that European Mink may be found further west in the floodplain of the Danube between Grindu and Isaccea, Tulcea County (Cristescu et al. 2023). A small population was also present in Ukraine in the Dniester Delta between 2009-2014 and the American Mink was not spotted there (Rozhenko 2015), which suggests that European Mink may still persist there. Outside of the Danube and Dniester Deltas, the most recent published record of European Mink in Romania is from Transylvania, dated 1993 (Hegyeli and Kecskés 2014); these authors refer to recent unconfirmed sightings of European Mink in the mountain regions but note that there is a possibility of confusion with American Mink and Western Polecat, and suggest that European Mink might already have been rare in the region by the time of the arrival of American Mink (presumed to have arrived in the area in the mid-late 1980s). Areas where it is considered likely that European Mink might persist in Romania outside of the Danube Delta include Balta Mică a Brăilei, Prut River, Romanian Danube and some areas in the Carpathians - currently however, this remains unconfirmed (Maran et al. 2014, Marinov 2022). Live-trapping and camera trap surveys in Balta Mică a Brăilei, the Mureș Gorge and tributaries, and the Mureș Upper Valley in the Carpathians, and live-trapping in the lower reaches of the Prut Valley in 2024 failed to detect European Mink or American Mink (A. Bulacu, A. Duma, A. Hăgătiș, unpub. data 2024). A pelt of European Mink, supposedly captured by illegal trappers during winter 2020/2021, was recovered in the Ukrainian side of the Carpathians, in the locality of Bystrets, Ivano-Frankivsk region (data reported by M. Rusin, 2023). Also, the species was recorded during camera trapping in summer 2021 in the Carpathian National Nature Park, in the upper reaches of Prut River, in the vicinity of Vorokhta, also in the Ivano-Frankvisk region (data reported by A. Mishta, 2024). These two independent records in the same region suggest the recent/current existence of a population in this part of the Carpathians. The localities are 20-30 km from the Romanian border and therefore, the presence of the species in the north of Romania is also possible.

In Russia, European Mink might still be present in the following 12 federal regions (within the Pan Europe boundaries established by the IUCN for past Red List assessments): Arhangelsk, Vologda, Komi, Ivanovo, Kostroma, Tver, Jaroslav, Perm, Saratov, Volgograd, Rostov, Stavropol (Skumatov 2017). However, this is based on data obtained at least 10 years ago, and it is likely that the species has now disappeared from some of these regions: it has been registered only in nine regions in the last 10 years (Komi, Perm, Kostroma, Jaroslav, Ivanovo, Novgorod, Tver, Moscow and Volgograd) (https://rusmam.ru/atlas/map). Information obtained from hunters suggests that the species may also still be present in Samara, Kaluga, Belgorod and Baskhorostan regions (data reported by N. Kiseleva, 2024).

In Estonia, the European Mink is present on the island of Hiiumaa (from captive-bred animals released between 2000-2016) where it can be found in most small rivers and streams, in an area of approximately 1,000 km² (M. Põdra, S. Pitsal and T. Maran, unpubl. data 2023).

The historical range of the European Mink extended from south/central Finland to the Caucasian Mountains and Black Sea, and from east of the Ural Mountains, to northern Spain (Novikov 1939, Heptner et al. 1967, Youngman 1990, Maran 2007).

The European Mink is listed in Annex II to the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, and Annexes II and IV (a priority species of Community Interest) of the EU Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora). The European Mink has recently been listed as Critically Endangered at a national level in France (DREAL 2021) and is included on the Spanish National Catalogue of Endangered Species (CNEA) in “Critical situation”. In Estonia, it is listed as ‘I category’ (i.e. granted the highest level of protection). In Romania, it is listed as Endangered in the Red Book of Vertebrates (Botnariuc et al. 2005). The Red Book of the Russian Federation (2024 https://redbookrf.ru/ accessed 02.04.24) lists a purported subspecies of European Mink: the Caucasian European Mink, Mustela lutreola turovi (Novikov 1939) as Endangered.

The following conservation actions have been carried out between 2016 and 2023, with some still on-going:

1. Captive breeding: the European Mink has been bred in captivity in Russia since the 1970s (Ternovsky and Ternovskaya 1994) and in Estonia since the 1980s (Maran 2006). In the framework of the EEP, dedicated breeding facilities have also been established in Germany (Festl et al. 2004) and France (DIREN 2021), with other European zoos occasionally also contributing to breeding and/or increasing awareness for the species. In Spain, a national breeding program was initiated in 2004 (MMARM 2008). Currently, the EEP and the Spanish breeding programme are managed separately - experimental breeding between the EEP and Spanish population was carried out between 2018-2020 but discontinued at present (Põdra et al. unpubl. data). The EEP program is composed of >200 individuals (founders from north of Europe) and the Spanish programme 50-60 individuals (founders from Spanish wild population) (K. Nemvalts and C. Aranda, pers. com. 2024). A small captive population is also maintained in the Breeding Center of Ilmen Nature Reserve in Russia (Kiseleva 2018). There are no individuals from the southern population (Danube Delta) involved in breeding programs at the moment (reported by T. Maran 2024).

2. Conservation translocations: reintroduction and reinforcement projects are ongoing in Spain, Germany, and the Estonian islands of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa. Similar actions are planned for France from 2025 onwards. Between 2000 and 2016, 580 mink were released onto Hiiumaa Island (an island of ca. 1,000 km²); since 2016 a stable population of fewer than 100 wild-born individuals has been estimated (reviewed in Maran et al. 2017). A similar release on the larger (2,400 km²) neighbouring island of Saaremaa Island was started in 2022 (Maran, T. and Silts, M., unpubl. data). In Spain, a reinforcement action has been ongoing in the Ebro basin in Álava and La Rioja (with more than 100 European Mink released there between 2018 and 2023), and experimental releases in different regions (Gipuzkoa: population reinforcement; Aragón: assisted colonisation; unpubl. data). A concerted effort is underway aiming to restore European Mink to the Carpathian Mountains of Romania, but this is currently at the feasibility stage.

3. Monitoring of European Mink: in Estonia, the island population in Hiiumaa is regularly monitored (annual live-trapping combined with searching for footprints). In Spain, monitoring of European Mink is carried out by regional governments where the species is present. Traditionally, live-trapping has been used to this effect, and recently also hair-trapping and camera-trapping have been used (Croose et al. 2023). In addition, information about the presence of the species is collected alongside the control/eradication of American Mink (see below). In 2022, a field study was carried out across the known distribution area in Spain, and DNA analyses of hair samples were carried out with the aim of evaluating the distribution area and population size in the whole country (MITECO 2024). In France, from 2016, the European Mink range is continuously updated as part of the 3rd National Action Plan (NAP; DREAL 2021). Similarly to the monitoring in Spain, different methods (live-trapping, hair-trapping, camera-trapping, etc.) are used to detect the species’ presence, prioritising areas with confirmed recent species presence data (DREAL 2021). In Romania, regular monitoring has been conducted in the Danube Delta since 2001, primarily using live-trapping (since 2003) and opportunistic sightings and direct observations. Surveys using live-trapping, camera traps, eDNA and faecal DNA are ongoing in the Mureș Basin since autumn 2023.

4. American Mink control/eradication: programs to control American Mink within and around the European Mink range are ongoing in Spain and in France. Both countries primarily use mink rafts (with clay tracking pads and live traps) as a method to trap and kill American Mink. In Spain, a number of local and regional attempts to remove American Mink within the European Mink distribution area and its surroundings have been underway since the late 1990s - early 2000s (Põdra and Gómez 2018). However, due to the incompatibility of both species sharing the same ecological niche (see above), there is a continual risk of colonization of the area where the European Mink still survives. Within the framework of the Life Lutreola Spain project (2014-2019), the American Mink population was eradicated in the Ebro river basin in Álava and La Rioja, and in several Cantabric rivers in the north of the Basque Country (Tragsatec 2019). Since 2019, low numbers of American Mink individuals have been captured there annually (having dispersed into the area from neighbouring populations), meaning that European Mink only survive due to ongoing American Mink removal efforts. In France, continuous work is carried out to limit the impact of American Mink on areas with known presence of European Mink, as part of the 3rd DREAL, with positive outcomes (i.e. significant decreases in the number of captures and rafts visited in some areas, unpubl. data). The Life Visón project strengthened this action significantly between 2017-2023 to preserve the Charente basin, which is still free of American Mink (https://lifevison.fr/).

5. Habitat restoration: several actions have been carried out to improve habitat quality in the southwestern range of the population. In Spain, Arga and Aragon river restoration was carried out within the framework of the Life Territorio Visón project (2010-2016) (https://territoriovison.eu/). Also, as a part of the Life Lutreola Spain project (2014-2019), a local-scale habitat restoration was carried out in the Basque Country, in the province of Álava (Ebro river) (Tragsatec, 2019). In France, within the framework of the Life Visón project (2017-2023), different restoration works were implemented to improve habitat quality, such as the creation of fish spawning grounds and ponds, restoration of wet meadows and riparian woodlands in the Charente basin, and reduction of road collisions by adapting passages for the European Mink and other mammals (https://lifevison.fr/). In Romania, in 2019, a project was launched for the restoration of some areas in the Danube Delta: including the construction of artificial platforms, and the construction of interconnected channels with platforms to facilitate territory connectivity. The construction of these platforms is aimed at minimising the negative effect that delayed floods (by approximately two months) can have for reproductive success at that time of the year; they also compensate for bank erosion caused by engine boats as a result of the very high increase in tourism traffic (Marinov 2022). Another project started in 2019 aiming to assess conservation status and propose conservation measures for all habitats and animals of community interest, including European Mink.

6. Research: studies have been undertaken to determine the European Mink's ecological requirements, to analyse the causes of its decline, and to assess the genetic variability, and the survival of released captive-born European Mink (reviewed in Maran et al. 2016, 2017). New studies have been launched to study reproductive behaviour and physiology, impact of captive conditions on behavioural development and welfare, options for artificial insemination, microbiome and genomics, and effects of individual differences (personality) in mink for improving both conservation breeding and reintroduction and reinforcement actions. For example, studies on reproductive behaviour and physiology of the species in captivity are currently ongoing in both Estonia and in Spain with the aim of understanding the reasons behind the lower mating success rate of captive-born individuals (Kiik et al. 2013), including individual differences (i.e. personality, Nemvalts et al. 2018) and welfare-relevant factors (Díez-León et al. 2020, Marin-Sierra et al. 2024, Kiik et al. 2024, Nemvalts et al. 2024). Assisted reproduction techniques have also been piloted in this species in France and in Spain (Santucci 2019, C. Aranda pers. comm.), blood reference values described (Villanueva-Saz et al. 2024), and a study of captive and wild morbidity and mortality analysis is underway (e.g. Ruano Feo at al. 2020, Giner et al. 2022). In addition, experimental breeding between the individuals of EEP and Spanish breeding program, as well as a genetic study of both captive populations, was undertaken within the framework of the Life Lutreola Spain (2014-2019), with the aim of evaluating the joint management of captive populations of European Mink (Tragsatec 2019, Nummert et al. unpublished data). Genetic studies have also evaluated differences between the established Hiiumaa population and the EEP population (Nummert et al. 2023), sequenced the species’ genome (Mouton et al. 2022, Skorupski et al. 2023), and analysed gut microbiome differences between European and American Mink (van Leeuwen et al. 2023). Field studies have included assessment of methods for population assessment (Croose et al. 2023, MITECO 2024), and studies of reproduction in the wild are being carried out in Estonia (island of Hiiumaa, M. Díez-León and T. Maran, unpubl. data), Spain (A. Gómez and M. Põdra, unpubl. data) and in France (https://lifevison.fr/). Also, studies on survival and adaptation of the species in reintroduction programs are underway in Spain and in Estonia, which include studies on how captive conditions affect behaviour that leads to successful adaptation in released individuals (e.g. Marin-Sierra et al. 2022), as well as behavioural studies of wild European Mink (M. Põdra and M. Díez-León unpubl. data).

The impact of American Mink and the preservation of intact habitats are likely to remain the main challenges for the preservation of the European Mink in terms of both management and research. Efficient strategies for large-scale removal of American Mink, and detection and prevention of further American Mink invasion (or re-invasion) into new areas are needed. The use of mink rafts in different countries (Spain, France) for American Mink control/eradication is effective and local efforts to date have been sufficient to avoid colonisation of American Mink within the range of native European Mink. Nevertheless, the American Mink’s constant expansion into new areas means that additional and more efficient effort and strategy are needed to remove American Mink from rivers in adjacent areas, to ensure the survival of European Mink.

Possibilities for European Mink recovery are limited in most of Europe, mostly due to a lack of suitable habitat that is free of American Mink and other threats. Therefore, there is an urgent need to assess the possibilities to (re)introduce even small populations across Europe, in areas with suitable habitats available, free of American Mink and with low risk of colonisation. To provide capacity for future reintroductions, the habitat requirements of possible future European Mink populations need to be incorporated into current management protocols for recipient rivers and streams, and there is a need for cost-effective restoration methods for running-water ecosystems, especially small streams and watercourses modified by human-activity.
The critical status of the species in the wild means that ex situ species management is also necessary. The conservation breeding efforts of the species requires collaboration among countries and coordination across Europe. Currently, the captive-breeding programmes are barely meeting the goal of maintaining genetic diversity due to the limited resources available, and the small number of individuals in the population: there are just over 200 individuals in all the centres that are currently part of the EEP, and 50-60 in Spanish centres. Such small populations will lose genetic diversity fast when kept separately, and new founders are not available. Therefore, joint management is needed. Although experimental breeding between individuals in the EEP and in the Spanish breeding programme gave positive genetic results (Tragsatec 2019, Nummert et al. in print), the Spanish breeding program has not joined the EEP at the time of writing. Recent whole genome studies for the species (Mouton et al. 2022, Skorupski et al. 2023) might open new avenues to inform coordinated management of wild and captive populations. However, improved capacity for conservation breeding of European Mink will also require a better understanding of its reproductive biology, especially of the factors limiting successful mating (see ongoing research above).

For extant populations and to improve confidence in the assessment of the global conservation status of the species, further information is urgently needed on the current status of the European Mink in Romania, Ukraine and elsewhere in eastern parts of Europe, as well as updated information on the status of American Mink in other areas.

In addition, to comprehensively and actively protect this species, it is important to continue efforts to raise awareness and educate the general public and local stakeholders about the species so that any conservation management actions undertaken locally and regionally (be these habitat protection, American Mink control, conservation translocations, etc.) have the highest chances of success.

Currently, the remaining small isolated populations of European Mink exist in different countries under different regulatory systems. A single coordinated “one-plan” approach encompassing management of all extant population fragments, strategic planning for the restoration and/or establishment of new populations, in the areas where the known threats are not present, supported by coordinated ex situ populations, and appropriate policy or management tools to support collaboration between governments and other stakeholders, is urgently needed to ensure the survival of the species.