Andean Bear altitudinal range extends from 200 to 4,750 m above sea level, with an area of occupancy covering approximately 260,000 km² along the Tropical Andes. The lower limit is on the Western Peruvian range; the upper limit is within Carrasco National Park in Bolivia (Peyton 1980, 1984, 1999; Goldstein 1990, Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Cadena 1991, Rodríguez et al. 2003, Sánchez-Mercado 2008, Figueroa and Stucchi 2009, Velez-Liendo 2010, García-Rangel 2012, Appleton et al. 2013).

The species inhabits a great variety of ecosystems along the Tropical Andes including Tropical dry forests, Tropical moist lowland and montane forests; Tropical dry and moist shrublands, and Tropical high altitude shrubland and grasslands (García-Rangel 2012). Seasonal shifts in habitat use due to changes in food availability have been reported (Peyton 1980, Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Cadena 1991, Velez-Liendo 1999, Paisley 2001, Cuesta et al. 2003, Troya et al. 2004, Ríos-Uzeda et al. 2006, Figueroa and Stucchi 2009). Andean bears are mostly found in Tropical moist forests and Tropical high-altitude grasslands (Peyton 1980, 1987a, 1987b, 1999; Velez-Liendo 1999, Cuesta et al. 2003, Ríos-Uzeda et al. 2006, Sánchez-Mercado 2008), but it remains unclear whether bears can live entirely in high-altitude grasslands and paramo without access to forested areas (Paisley and Garshelis 2006). In the north coast of Peru, Andean bears inhabit a Tropical dry shrubland (Peyton 1999, Figueroa and Stucchi 2009, García-Rangel 2012, Appleton et al. 2013).

Andean bears are omnivorous and have a suite of physical adaptations for this life style (McLellan and Reiner 1994, Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004, Christiansen and Wroe 2007, Christiansen 2008). Anatomical skull and dentition adaptations to grind (Christiansen 2008) and a pseudo-thumb (Salesa et al. 2006) to aid in consuming a diet of fibrous, hard vegetative matter. Andean bears also opportunistically prey on mammals, including rabbits and mountain tapirs (Castellanos 2011a), but most notably free-ranging domestic cattle (Goldstein 1990, 2002; Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Cadena 1991; Peyton 1999; Cuesta and Suárez 2001; Sacco and Van Valkenburgh 2004; Goldstein et al. 2006; Christiansen and Wroe 2007; Christiansen 2008; Torres 2008; Figueroa and Stucchi 2009; García-Rangel 2012). Bromeliads and palm trees constitute the most common food items in the diet of Andean Bears across the majority of their range (Peyton 1980, Goldstein 1990, Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Cadena 1991, Goldstein and Salas 1993, Troya et al. 2004, Rivadeneria-Canedo 2008, Figueroa and Stucchi 2009, Ríos-Uzeda et al. 2009, García-Rangel 2012). On a seasonal basis, fruits are key food sources for the species as they provide carbohydrates, protein and fat necessary to balance their diet (Peyton 1980, 1984, Goldstein 1990, Rodríguez-Rodríguez and Cadena 1991, Rivadeneira-Canedo 2001, Troya et al. 2004, Kattan et al. 2004, Figueroa and Stucchi 2009, Ríos-Uzeda et al. 2009).

Andean Bears are excellent climbers and commonly build tree platforms where they rest, feed on fruits and carcasses, as well as guard feeding areas (Peyton 1980, 1984; Goldstein 1990, 1991, 2002; Torres 2008, García-Rangel 2012). Activity patterns are mainly diurnal, but they vary seasonally and between geographic areas (Paisley 2001, Paisley and Garshelis 2006, Castellanos 2011b). As food is available all year-round in most parts of their range, Andean bears do not hibernate (Peyton 1999, Garshelis 2009). Information on reproduction is limited for Andean Bears and has mainly come from captive individuals (Bloxam 1977, Rosenthal 1988, Claro-Hergueta et al. 2007, Spady et al. 2007, García-Rangel 2012, Enciso and Guimarães 2013).

The species is polyestrous, a facultative seasonal breeder and experiences delayed implantation (Claro-Hergueta et al. 2007, Spady et al. 2007). In captivity, females show three to four oestrous cycles during a single breeding season with no seasonal ovarian activity (Enciso and Guimarães 2013). Mating has been recorded in the wild at various times of year but peaking between March and October (Peyton 1980, Peyton et al. 1998). Litter size varies from one to four, with twins being most common, and may be related to female weight and hence food abundance (Saporiti 1949, Bloxam 1977, Peyton 1980, Claro-Hergueta et al. 2007, García-Rangel 2012). Field observations in Bolivia (Velez-Liendo 1999) suggested that births occur two to three months before the peak of the fruit season, perhaps to allow mothers to leave the den with their cubs when fruits are abundant (Peyton 1980, Peyton et al. 1998, Velez-Liendo 1999, Velez-Liendo and Paisley 2010). In captivity, time of birth varies with latitude but births usually occur from February to September (Garshelis 2004, Claro-Hergueta et al. 2007).

The Andean Bear is the only extant bear species in South America and is endemic to the Tropical Andes (Kattan et al. 2004; Ríos-Uzeda et al. 2006, 2007; Viteri 2007; Viteri and Waits 2009; García-Rangel 2012). The distribution of this species is long (ca 4,600 km) and narrow (ca 200-650 km) in the mountains from Venezuela to Bolivia (Peyton et al. 1998, Yerena 1998, Peyton 1999, Rodríguez et al. 2003, Kattan et al. 2004). From North to South, Andean bears are found in Sierra de Perijá and Cordillera de Mérida in Venezuela; the Occidental, Central, and Oriental Andean mountain ranges of Colombia; both Eastern and Western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes; across the three Peruvian Andean mountain ranges, including a portion of the North Pacific coastal desert; and in the Eastern slope of the Tropical Andes in Bolivia (García-Rangel 2012). The possible presence of the bear in Panama was reported by Hershkovitz (1957), but recent surveys in the area did not find evidence to support this claim (Goldstein et al. 2008). Recently, presence of Andean bears in Northern Argentina has been confirmed by Cosse et al. (2014) through genetics. However, given that these presence points are up to 300 km south (straight line) of the known most-southerly population in Bolivia, they may represent vagrant individuals rather than resident populations.

The Andean Bear has been listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN since 1982 and has been included in CITES Appendix I since 1975. A total of 58 protected areas have been established across the Andean Bear distribution, but threats remain within their boundaries with most of these areas being no more than “Paper Parks” lacking adequate budget and staff (Hardner 2008; Sánchez-Mercado et al. 2008; Monsalve Dam et al. 2010; García-Rangel 2011, 2012). Although efforts to establish, maintain and connect old and new protected areas along the bear’s range have been carried out (e.g., Vilcabamba-Amboro corridor between Peru and Bolivia and the interconnected system of protected areas in the Venezuela Andes), large portions of the bear’s habitat are still unprotected and poaching has not been controlled (Yerena 1994, 1998;Yerena et al. 2003, Kattan et al. 2004, Surkin et al. 2010, Yerena and García-Rangel 2010, Hoffman et al. 2011, Sánchez-Mercado et al. 2014). Recently (2007-2014), a number of important steps towards Andean Bear conservation have been undertaken across its distribution including: (1) promotion of Andean Bear conservation by local education programmes and research projects carried out by conservation groups, NGOs, zoological parks, universities, research institutes and government agencies in Bolivia, Peru and Venezuela (Figueroa and Stucchi 2009, Albarracín 2010, García-Rangel 2012). (2) The publication of national action plans for Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador (Sánchez-Mercado 2008, Castellanos et al. 2010, Monsalve Dam et al. 2010), and a national assessment for Bolivia (Velez-Liendo, et al. 2009). Unfortunately priority actions highlighted by some of these programs have not been undertaken. Such is the case for the three key areas identified for connectivity conservation within the Venezuelan Action Plan (Yerena et al. 2007).

Knowledge regarding the species ecology has improved, with information about home range sizes, movement patterns and population sizes for some locations in Peru, Ecuador and Colombia (Rodríguez et al. 2003, Monsalve Dam et al. 2010, Sánchez-Mercado et al. 2010, García-Rangel 2012). Nevertheless, in order to develop robust conservation actions, further efforts regarding population sizes and limiting factors are required. Current and future research need to focus on populations, habitat and connectivity, human dimensions, and climate change effects on both the ecology of the species and human-bear conflict (Rodríguez et al. 2003, Jorgenson and Sandoval 2005, Yerena et al. 2007, Monsalve Dam et al. 2010, Velez-Liendo and Paisley 2010, García-Rangel 2012). Finally, it is important to encourage conservation initiatives to focus on a more holistic and creative approach where the needs of the species and the people inhabiting the Andes mountain range are jointly considered (García-Rangel 2012).