Asiatic Wild Asses live in open dryland habitats, such as steppes, desert steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts. They can live in mountainous regions but tend to avoid steep slopes and rugged terrain. Asiatic Wild Ass feeding strategy is similar to that observed in other equids in dry environments. When grass is plentiful, Asiatic Wild Asses are predominately grazers. During the dry season and in drier habitats, Asiatic Wild Asses will supplement their diet with shrubs and switch to become mixed feeders during certain seasons (Bannikov 1981, Burnik Šturm et al. 2017, Xu et al. 2012).

Like all equids, Asiatic Wild Asses need regular access to water. GPS studies show that Asiatic Wild Asses drink daily, especially when it is hot or the vegetation is dry, commuting between pasture and water (Giotto et al. 2015, Payne et al. 2020). Water availability is a key resource determining the presence and movements of Asiatic Wild Asses throughout its range (Bannikov 1958, Esmaeili et al. 2021, Nandintsetseg et al. 2016, WCS 2021, Zhang et al. 2020). Cut-off values for pasture use away from water seem to be in the range of 15-20 km (Bannikov 1981, Nandintsetseg et al. 2016). In Mongolia’s South Gobi Region, khulan (Equus hemionus hemionus) on average do not venture further than 7.2 km away from water when re-visiting the same waterpoint (Payne et al. 2020). Where subsurface flow exists in dry riverbeds, Asiatic Wild Ass also dig for water, creating craters up to a meter deep (Payne et al. 2020).

Habitat use of Asiatic Wild Asses is negatively influenced by human activity such as human settlements, tourist visits at water sources, livestock camps, and anthropogenic disturbance caused by mining and road development (Buuveibaatar et al. 2016, Zhuo et al. 2022). Evidence further suggests that disturbance negatively influences group size, requiring animals to spend more time being vigilant (Wang et al. 2016). Unfortunately, the impact of anthropogenic disturbance and habitat quality on population performance is difficult to assess and such analyses are currently missing.

Asiatic Wild Asses are among the most mobile ungulates globally (Joly et al. 2019, Tucker et al. 2018). Their movements exceed the better-known classical migrations of caribou in the Arctic or wildebeest and zebra in the Serengeti-Maasai Mara ecosystem. These wide-ranging, nomadic movements allow Asiatic Wild Asses to thrive in large numbers under the harsh climate and unpredictable conditions of Central Asia’s resource-poor drylands (Kauffman et al. 2021a, Nandintsetseg et al. 2019, Nandintsetseg et al. 2016). Nomadism in combination with a flexible fission-fusion social system (where group membership as well as group size varies; (Renan et al. 2018, Rubenstein et al. 2015)) enables Asiatic Wild Ass to make the most of the available resources in an unpredictable environment that is prone to extremes. Contrary to range resident species, Asiatic Wild Ass can buffer the effect of local or temporary resource-poor seasons or years by moving to less affected areas (Kaczensky et al. 2011a). Forcing migratory or nomadic species to become range resident greatly lowers the carrying capacity of the landscape by restricting the population’s ability to track resources, avoid predators, and minimize exposure to parasites (Fryxell et al. 1988). Reduced mobility in combination with smaller population sizes makes populations more vulnerable to localized events and reduces their resilience to climate change (Kauffman et al. 2021a).

Climate change is expected to bring a further increase in temperatures and a higher frequency of extreme events like droughts and severe winter storms (Hijioka 2014, IPBES 2018, Nandintsetseg and Shinoda 2013), which can result in high local or regional mortality. Hence, maintaining mobility for Asiatic Wild Ass and other migratory ungulates is probably the single most important measure to mitigate the effect of climate change. Studies in China have found that climate change is not only causing habitat loss for Asiatic Wild Ass, but also shifting its suitable habitat to higher latitudes (Ding et al. unpubl. data). Movement becomes more and more difficult if suitable habitat is lost (e.g., conversion to agricultural, urban, or industrial use), becomes too disturbed (e.g., resource extraction, recreation), or is made inaccessible by barriers (e.g., roads, rails, fences). Due to their wide-ranging movements, Asiatic Wild Asses are particularly vulnerable to the barrier effects of linear infrastructure (Batsaikhan et al. 2014, UNEP/CMS 2019).

Age at first reproduction seems to be three years for mares and five years for stallions. Mares can produce a foal annually under favourable conditions up to at least 15 years of age. Sex-ratio at birth is close to 50/50 (Bannikov 1981, Saltz and Rubenstein 1995, Volf 2010). Area specific data of Asiatic Wild Ass population dynamics parameters are largely lacking or anecdotal. For the re-introduced and intensively studied population on Barsa Kelmes Island average fertility of adult mares was estimated at 66.6%, but varied depending on pasture condition and winter severity (Bannikov 1981). Foal survival in the wild likely is in the magnitude of 50% and yearling survival is lower than adult survival (Feh et al. 2001, Nowzari et al. 2012, Kaczensky pers. obs.). Age determination of 350 skulls of Asiatic Wild Ass carcasses from the Mongolian Gobi documented a mean age of 9.1 years (for animals ≥3 years) and a maximum age of 29 years (Lkhagvasuren et al. 2013). The species is polygynous and thus only a portion of the adult males contribute to reproduction. Genetic information from the population in Israel led to estimates between 10-20% of the males per generation (Greenbaum et al. 2018). The percentage in other populations is unknown, particularly as there is still limited understanding of the social organization of the species (Solomatin 1973, Bannikov 1981, Rubenstein 1986, Feh et al. 1994, Klingel 1998, Shah 1993, Feh et al. 2002, Neumann-Denzau and Denzau 2007, Rubenstein et al. 2007, Shah and Qureshi 2007, Sundaresan et al. 2007, Kaczensky et al. 2008).

The historic range of the Asiatic wild ass can only be approximated. Hunting of the species is well documented from well before modern times and by 1500 the range was already reduced in Europe, the Middle East, and likely the Arabian Peninsula (Bannikov 1981, Crassard et al. 2022, Goldberg 2018, Harper 1945). The historic range likely covered an area in the range of 10 million square kilometres stretching throughout the steppes and desert steppes of northern China, Mongolia, northwest India, the Russian Federation, across central Asia and into the Middle East, including Iran, the Arabian Peninsula and Asia Minor (Bannikov 1981, Harper 1945, Heptner et al. 1988, Denzau and Denzau 1999). As of 2023, the species is found in eight countries (Mongolia, India, China, Kazakhstan, Iran, Israel, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan). There is a possibility that there are some Asiatic Wild Asses remaining in Pakistan, although no more animals have been observed over the last ca. 8 years (U. Khan WWF Pakistan pers. comm. via Q. Qureshi 2023). The species’ stronghold is in southern Mongolia where about 84% of the global population are found (Buuveibaatar et al. 2017, Kaczensky et al. 2023). All other remaining populations are much smaller and largely isolated from each other. One subspecies, the Syrian Wild Ass (E. h. hemippus), became extinct in 1927. 

Autochthonous populations of the species have only survived in four countries: Mongolia, China, India, and Iran. Turkmenistan recently lost its autochthonous population in Badhyz, but a small number of Asiatic Wild Asses remain in other locations in the country from past reintroductions with animals from Badhyz. Three more countries have re-established the species: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Israel, with efforts ongoing in Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Asiatic Wild Asses globally are found in 10 more or less isolated populations, some of which have several subpopulations or segments (e.g., the Gobi population). In addition, there are 14 sites of Asiatic Wild Ass occurrences (usually less than 50 individuals) or where recent reintroduction initiatives are currently trying to re-establish populations.

Khulan – E. h. hemionus

In Mongolia, the largest global population of Asiatic Wild Ass is found in the Gobi Desert in the south of the country, with eastward range largely limited by the fenced Trans-Siberian railway and southwards by the fenced international border with China. Asiatic wild ass are present throughout the Great Gobi and Small Gobi Strictly Protected Areas (SPA; both of which have an A and B part), but may be rare or largely absent in the area between Great Gobi A SPA and Small Gobi A SPA (Adiya et al. 2016, Sukhchuluun et al. 2013). Movements of 100 Asiatic Wild Ass equipped with GPS collars in the South Gobi Region since 2013 have not documented any Asiatic Wild Ass to move to the west beyond Small Gobi A SPA, further indicating that movements between the Transaltai Gobi, where Great Gobi A SPA is located and the South Gobi Region, where Small Gobi A is located may be rare (Kaczensky et al. unpubl. data).

In China, the khulan range is separated into several populations in the Gobi Desert of three northern provinces of China bordering Mongolia, namely Xinjiang, Gansu, and Inner Mongolia. The largest population is in Kalamaili National Park (NP) in Xinjiang. A recent effort compiled the most recent information for a national overview (Xu et al. 2022).

Khur – E. h. khur

In India, Asiatic Wild Ass are found in the Wild Ass Sanctuary in the Little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. Over the last three decades, Asiatic Wild Asses have also expanded their range to areas outside the Wild Ass sanctuary, such as Khadir Bet in the Great Rann of Kutch, Ahmedabad, Surendranagar, and Bhavnagar and have also expanded into neighbouring Rajasthan (Rajasthan Forest Department 2019 unpublished report, S.H. Vardhan and S. Narwade pers.comm 2020) along the easternmost extension of the Rann of Kutch. 

Asiatic Wild Asses were previously reported in the province of Sind in Pakistan but are now considered extinct (Ghalib et al. 2018). However, there may still be some animals left, as the species presence was recorded in the desert lands of Tharparkar during a small mammal survey in 2013; unfortunately, no details on what the presence was based on, nor numbers or location were provided (Khan et al. 2015).

Kulan – E. h. kulan

In Kazakhstan, the largest population is found in Altyn Emel NP, with a smaller population in Barsa Kelmes State Nature Reserve (SNR). Small populations are found in Andassay and Ily Balkhash, with individuals also in Altyn Dala and Ustyurt. 

In Turkmenistan, no observations and signs of Asiatic Wild Asses have been recorded in Badhyz and none have been captured on camera traps at water points since 2015 (N. Khudaykuliyev pers. comm. 2023, (Kaczensky et al. 2019). We therefore conclude that this last autochthonous population of Turkmen kulan went extinct. There are also no confirmed observations from the reintroduced population in Meana Chaca. No Asiatic Wild Asses have been recorded in the Kaplankyr region, other than in the “no man’s land” between the cliff that makes the actual border with Uzbekistan (accessible to kulan) and the border fence on Turkmen territory where a few kulan have been seen (A. Amanov pers. comm. 2023). A small number of kulan are also reported in Gury Howdan and the Tersakan valley (H. Hojamyradov pers. comm. 2023).

In Uzbekistan, repeated expeditions have confirmed the presence of a population of Asiatic Wild Asses in what has become the South Ustyurt National Park (Marmazinskaya et al. 2016), Marmazinskaya et al. 2022). Genetic analysis of dung samples shows a high similarity with animals from Badhyz, low inbreeding, and quite good allelic richness, supporting that this population cannot be too small and fragmented (Kaczensky and Kuehn 2022). In addition, in 2022 two transports of captive bred Asiatic Wild Asses from the Jeyran Ecocenter near Bukhara reintroduced Asiatic Wild Ass to Saigachy reserve and the Sudochye-Akpetki reserve. 

Onager – E. h. onager and Onager x Kulan hybrids

In Iran, the only population of onagers (Equus hemionus onager) resides within the Bahram-e-Goor Protected Area, surrounding the Qatrouiyeh National Park. The onager population primarily lives in the Qatrouiyeh National Park, exhibiting free movement between the park itself and the adjacent protected area (Esmaeili et al. 2024). Occasional and seasonal movement of small groups of onagers into farmlands surrounding the protected area, extending as far as the Qarreh Tappe No-hunting area (which overlaps Bahram-e-Goor and extends up to 50 km away) in Yazd Province and Shahr-e-Babak in Kerman Province has been reported (personal comm. Iranian Department of Environment). The indigenous Asiatic Wild Ass population in the Touran Biosphere Reserve, along with the limited number of reintroduced animals in the Kalmand Protected Area in Yazd province, Siah-Kooh NP, and Kavir NP (all originating from the Touran Biosphere Reserve), are recognized as natural hybrids of E. h. onager and E. h. kulan (Kaczensky and Kuehn 2022). 

In Israel, the largest numbers of Asiatic Wild Ass (onager and kulan hybrids) are seen in the Negev Highlands, but they occur in most of the Negev desert (except for the northern Negev and the Eilat Mountains in the south). 

Asiatic Wild Ass have been introduced to Shaumari Wildlife Reserve in Jordan (Hatough-Bouran et al. 1991), from where 10 individuals were transferred to the Prince Mohamed Bin Salman Reserve in Saudi Arabia in 2023.

For further details, see subspecies Red List Assessments.

The Asiatic Wild Ass is protected with hunting prohibited in all range states. Under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) the Asiatic Wild Ass has been listed since 1975, with subspecies E. h. hemionus, E. h. khur (Appendix I), and E. h. kulan, and E. h. onager (Appendix II) [1 July 1975]. Stricter national measures were implemented to restrict trade for non-commercial purposes by Israel in 2019, India in 2018, and Afghanistan in 2013. The Asiatic Wild Ass is one of the key species in the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI) of CMS (Karlstetter and Mallon 2014) and has been listed under CMS in Appendix II since 2002. The full species is listed on Annex A of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations since 2013. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) listed the species on Appendix II in 2002 (UNEP/CMS 2002b). 

A major conservation threat is range fragmentation by linear infrastructure such as roads and railways, which can be mediated by allowing safe crossing passages for Asiatic Wild Ass. There is a lot of literature available on crossing structures for wildlife (Clevenger and Huijser 2011, Iuell et al. 2003, WII 2016). However limited information is currently available on the use of wildlife crossings by Asiatic Wild Asses. From India we know that Asiatic Wild Asses in the Little Rann of Kutch used wildlife crossing under State Highway 07 (Anonymous 2002). In recent years, more evidence for successful mitigation measures have come forward: in Mongolia, a pilot project to improve connectivity along the Trans-Mongolian Railroad was initiated in 2019 and tested up to three test openings to evaluate their use by Asiatic Wild Ass and assess safety risks (concerning livestock and wildlife collisions with the train). On 16 March 2020, the first Asiatic Wild Ass was documented to cross at the opening and at least 2 more on later occasions. In Kalamaili NP in northern China, preliminary results of recently implemented crossing structures suggest that Asiatic Wild Asses have adapted and make extensive use of these passages (W. Xu pers. comm. 2023). 

China currently has no management plan for Asiatic Wild Ass. However, protection for this species was strengthened with the upgrading of Kalamaili Mountain Ungulate National Nature Reserve to Kalamaili National Park in 2022, as this region holds 80% of the Chinese Asiatic Wild Ass population. On December 20, 2023, China unveiled its inaugural inventory of key terrestrial wildlife habitats, encompassing areas that serve as vital ecosystems for 565 level-I and level-II animals within China's wildlife protection system (including Asiatic Wild Ass), supporting their habitation, reproduction, and migration (source: https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202312/20/content_WS6582db4dc6d0868f4e8e2648.html).

In India the Gujarat Forest Department has a 10-year management plan for the Wild Ass Sanctuary in Rann of Kutch. The last plan is from 2014/15 and will be renewed by the Government of Gujarat in 2024/25. In Iran a national action plan has been developed for the conservation of Asiatic Wild Ass about 2 years ago. However, the plan has not yet been implemented. In Mongolia a first draft of a management plan for Asiatic Wild Ass has been prepared by WCS Mongolia after stakeholder consultations. The draft still needs to be accepted and endorsed by the government (WCS 2023). All other range states currently have no action plan.

The reintroduction of Asiatic Wild Ass to Barsa Kelmes, a former island in the Aral Sea, in 1953-1964 was probably the first ever reintroduction project using a wild equid (Bannikov 1981, Kaczensky et al. 2018). Further reintroductions followed in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Iran, and Israel (Kaczensky et al. 2016). Some have eventually failed, while others have succeeded in establishing populations in Barsa Kelmes and Altyn Emel in Kazakhstan, on the Ustyurt plateau in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and in the Negev in Israel. In recent years (post 2000), new reintroductions were initiated, particularly in Iran, Jordan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. Most recently, Saudi Arabia introduced Asiatic Wild Asses in 2023. Asiatic Wild Asses are not easy to capture in larger numbers, transport, or breed in captivity and it would therefore be desirable to compile past and ongoing experiences so that losses of animals can be minimised, and procedures optimised.

Infanticide and high aggression levels in stallions are a common problem in captive facilities. Damage to transport boxes resulting in self-injury or transport related accidents are also not uncommon. Closer cooperation between people working ex situ with wild populations and those working in situ with captive populations could only be beneficial for both sides and will likely result in better animal husbandry in situ and better animal welfare ex situ (Huber et al. 2019, Schook et al. 2016). A major concern for safely handling Asiatic Wild Asses is the limited availability or outright ban of standard veterinary drugs for equids in several of the Range States. These restrictions make it de facto illegal to use the well tested etorphine based anaesthesia protocols for capture and marking of free-ranging wild equids (Walzer 2014). Alternatives may be possible, but need to be tested with wild animals under field conditions (Bohner et al. 2022). Due to the lack of state- of-the-art veterinary drugs, the capacity of veterinarians to work with wildlife is rather restricted and experienced wildlife veterinarians are desperately needed.