Behaviour The species is largely a resident, but undergoes local daily and seasonal movements of up to several dozen kilometres (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996, E. T. C. Williams in litt. 2000). It breeds during the wet season months of May-December in West Africa, and July-January in East Africa (subject to local seasonal variation), nesting in single pairs in territories 0.5-1 km² (Urban et al. 1986). During the dry (non-breeding) season it is more congregatory, forming large flocks of up to several hundred individuals (Urban et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996). In South Sudan it begins to flock along the Nile in November, reaching a peak in late February and March (Urban et al. 1986). In Chad it gathers in concentrations after breeding, and then moves south (Urban et al. 1986). In Nigeria it was subject to local movements with seasonal changes in water levels (Urban et al. 1986), though it no longer occurs in the country. It forages singly, in pairs or in small groups (Urban et al. 1986). Habitat Breeding This species is found in wet and dry open habitats, but prefers freshwater marshes, wet grasslands, and the peripheries of water-bodies (Meine and Archibald 1996). In South Sudan it is especially found in areas with water up to 1 m in depth, and knee-high to hip-high vegetation dominated by Cyperus, Eleocharis, Scirpus, Setaria, Cynodon and various leguminous and rosaceous plants (Johnsgard 1983). It always remains near wetlands, but is rarely associated with deep, open water (Urban et al. 1986). It often prefers to forage on dry ground with short grass (Johnsgard 1983) and, particularly in West Africa, it will sometimes forage and nest in upland areas (del Hoyo et al. 1996), rice fields, wet crop fields and even abandoned fields (Meine and Archibald 1996). It prefers to roost in large trees, but will use small trees or shallow water when necessary (Johnsgard 1983). Non-breeding During the non-breeding season it congregates in larger permanent wetlands, and often forages near herds of domestic livestock (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996) or even in rubbish dumps (Johnsgard 1983). Diet This species is a generalist omnivore (Williams et al. 2003). Its primary food source is small grain crops (45%), with small plants, small invertebrates and small vertebrates also featuring in the diet (Williams et al. 2003). It will take insects (grasshoppers, flies), molluscs, millipedes, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, seed heads, grass tips and agricultural grain (corn, rice, millet) (Urban et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996). Breeding site Nests are built on the ground in densely vegetated wetlands (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Meine and Archibald 1996). The nest consists of a round, loosely constructed platform of reeds and grasses placed in short grass marsh in several centimetres of water, or occasionally on dry land (Urban et al. 1986). Its base is often over a metre in diameter (Urban et al. 1986). Clutch-size is c.2.5 eggs per nest. Incubation lasts 22-25 days, and chicks are able to fly when 35-40 days old (Dodman et al. 2014).

Balearica pavonina occurs in disjunct population pockets through the Sahel and Sudan-Guinea savanna zones of Africa, with records from as far south as the Democratic Republic of Congo, but was once more numerous and widespread.

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Listing in Appendix I has been pursued in the past (R. Beilfuss in litt. 2004), and CITES suspended trade in this species in Sudan, South Sudan and Guinea (Anon. 2013). A collaborative project was launched in 1999 to determine the population size and trend, distribution and threats, and an action plan for the species was then produced (Williams et al. 2003). There have been subsequent small-scale conservation projects including surveys/awareness (in the rice-growing region of the coastal zone of West Africa from Senegal to Guinea-Bissau, and in Ethiopia), assessments (Senegal Delta, Nigeria), monitoring at various sites across the range and investigations into trade and other threats (Mali, Guinea, Sudan) (Aynalem et al. 2014, Dodman et al. 2014, T. Dodman in litt. 2016). Updated species reviews have been produced (Morrison 2019), and some West African countries have developed national action plans for this species (Diagana et al. 2015, Diop 2015, Lecoq et al. 2015, Diagana 2016).

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species' total population size, and the size of different subpopulations (T. Dodman in litt. 2016). Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation, through, e.g., remote sensing of wetland reclamation/drainage for agriculture (P. Defos Du Rau in litt. 2024). Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns, and develop actions to reduce and minimise all forms of trade (local and international) (T. Dodman in litt. 2016). Improve the viability of sub-populations with management interventions at key sites, especially breeding areas (T. Dodman in litt. 2016). Consider options for eventual reintroduction to areas where the species may no longer exist, e.g., northern Nigeria (T. Dodman in litt. 2016). Source resources for the implementation for conservation action plans for this species (T. Dodman in litt. 2016).