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| Subspecies: | Unknown |
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| Est. World Population: | |
| CITES Status: | NOT LISTED |
| IUCN Status: | Vulnerable |
| U.S. ESA Status: | NOT LISTED |
| Body Length: | |
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| Jumping Ability: | (Horizontal) |
| Life Span: | in the Wild |
| Life Span: | in Captivity |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Females) |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Males) |
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Macaroni penguins nest on level to steep ground, often walking hundreds of metres across steep scree slopes to nest-sites. Whatever the locality, the breeding cycle is characterized by a high level of synchrony with a laying period protracted over a period of less than 2 weeks. Breeding areas usually have little or no vegetation due to erosion by birds.
Macaroni penguins are pelagic foragers, searching for prey at moderate depths, usually less than 50 m. They feed mainly on small krill (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Deagle et al. 2008); at South Georgia they feed extensively on Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), while at Crozet and Kerguelen they have a more diverse diet, feeding on small euphausiids, amphipods (Themisto gaudichaudii) and small amounts of myctophid fish. Their diets show a shift after incubation, with an increase in fish (myctophid). During their winter dispersal, they rely mostly on crustaceans (Bost et al. 2009).
Macaroni penguins show extensive changes in their foraging range throughout their breeding cycle. For example, incubating birds from Crozet target the distant, turbulent waters of the sub-Antarctic Front (Bon et al. 2015) while South Georgia, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands birds target the waters of the Polar Front (Barlow and Croxall 2000, Bon et al. 2015, Whitehead et al. 2016). Brooding birds forage closer to their colonies over the shelf and the shelf break, increasing their range during crèche (Trathan et al. 2006, Barlow and Croxall 2002, Crossin et al. 2015, Bon et al. 2015, Whitehead et al. 2016).
Patterns of movement are well known for adults during breeding (e.g. Trathan et al. 2006, Barlow and Croxall 2002, Crossin et al. 2015, Bon et al. 2015), but information for the non-breeding period (e.g. Bost et al. 2009; Thiebot et al. 2011 Ratcliffe et al. 2015) is less well known for several populations, and poorly known for juveniles.
At-sea habitats overlap with those of recovering populations of marine mammals; as such, recovering populations of Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) have been identified at South Georgia as potential resource competitors and a plausible cause of Macaroni Penguin population decrease (Barlow et al. 2002, Trathan et al. 2012). At some locations fur seals are penguin predators, as they have been identified catching and preying on Macaroni Penguins.
Eudyptes chrysolophus breeds in at least 258 colonies at c. 55 breeding sites (Crossin et al. 2013), including southern Chile, the Falkland Islands (Malvinas), South Georgia (Georgia del Sur) and the South Sandwich Islands (Islas Sandwich del Sur), the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, Bouvet Island (to Norway), Prince Edward and Marion Islands (South Africa), Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands (French Southern Territories), Heard and McDonald Islands (to Australia) and very locally on the Antarctic Peninsula.
Important populations exist at Isles Crozet (2.2 million pairs, including 1 million on Iles des Pingouins), Kerguelen (1.8 million pairs), Heard Island (1 million pairs), South Georgia (1 million pairs) and Marion Island (290,000 pairs). The population in the Patagonian Shelf region is estimated at 25,000 breeding pairs (Oehler et al. 2008, Kirkwood et al. 2007, Crossin et al. 2013). The Falkland Islands (Malvinas) population is estimated at no more than 1000 individuals (Stanworth Pers. Comm.). The rest of the population is contained in Chile in at least 12 known colonies. Diego Ramirez is the largest colony with 15,600 pairs (Kirkwood et al. 2007).
Winter PTT tracking from Marion Island shows some association with mesoscale eddies and sub-mesoscale filaments (Whitehead et al. 2016). Geolocation tracking from Kerguelen during winter revealed that individuals showed strong inter-annual fidelity to their wintering sites. They spent most of their time in a narrow latitudinal band (47°-49° S) within the central Indian Ocean (70°-110° E), corresponding oceanographically to the Polar Frontal Zone (Bost et al. 2009, Thiebot et al. 2011). In contrast, individuals from South Georgia spend most of their time widely distributed across the Scotia Sea during winter (Ratcliffe et al. 2015).
Recent phylogenetic analyses have shown that the species shows little genetic divergence from Royal Penguin populations (Frugone et al. 2018, 2019), suggesting that a reappraisal of the taxonomic status is needed.
Long-term monitoring programmes are in place at several breeding colonies (Ellis et al. 1998). Most breeding islands are protected as reserves of various kinds and Heard and McDonald Islands are a World Heritage Site. Eradication of rats and mice at South Georgia are complete, and after more than three years there has been no sign of rodent activity. However, it is unknown as to whether rats or mice depredated penguin chicks at South Georgia. Fisheries for Antarctic krill are managed at South Georgia in such a way as to reduce resource competition with land-based predators that target the same resource (Trathan et al. 2014); during the summer krill fisheries are prohibited from all waters surrounding South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and during the winter they must stay at least 30 km and 50 km from the coast, respectively.
Conservation Actions Proposed
Survey or resurvey all main breeding populations at major breeding sites, and research its distribution outside the breeding season. Conduct research into demography with robust estimates of survival of different sex and age classes. Undertake research into reproductive performance and foraging ecology. Maintain monitoring programmes at selected sites. Assess: i) the status and trends of populations breeding at colonies in the Indian Ocean, especially at Crozet and Kerguelen Islands, ii) the impacts of the recovery of previously depleted populations of marine mammals that compete for the same prey with Macaroni Penguins iii) the implications of fisheries that compete for the same prey with macaroni penguins iv) the implications of environmental change v) further document the decrease in population at South Georgia and v) whether historical genetic bottlenecks occurred. Also monitor threats such as the ingestion of and entanglement in marine debris, including the frequency of marine oiling. Ensure monitoring and mitigation of possible conflicts with fisheries. Investigate any potential impacts of disturbance associated with tourism. Continue eradication of introduced species (e.g. potential for eradication of invasive mice at Marion) as well as investigate the impacts of disease outbreaks. Best practice guidelines for reducing risk of disease outbreaks at islands are being developed by the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. Once available, these guidelines should be implemented. Develop studies of the potential impacts of climate change.