The little penguin (Eudyptula minor), the smallest of all penguins (~30-40 cm), is endemic to southern Australia and New Zealand, breeding during the austral autumn to summer months. These dark indigo-blue coloured penguins are the only genuinely nocturnal penguin species on land; adults always arrive after dusk and leave before dawn (Klomp & Wooller 1991, Chiaradia et al. 2007, Rodríguez et al. 2016). The global population is estimated as 469,760 individuals. The little penguin population trend is stable overall with localised decrease in some sites. This species is a generalist feeder with significant variability in diet between colonies and even between years at the same colony (Klomp and Wooller 1988, Gales & Pemberton 1990, Cullen et al. 1992, Fraser and Lalas 2004, Chiaradia et al. 2010, Chiaradia et al. 2016). They feed mainly on clupeids such as anchovy Engraulis sp and sardines Sardinops sagax when feeding chicks but they may also feed on krill Nyctiphanes australis and several species of cephalopods at all stages of breeding (Gales & Pemberton 1990, Cullen et al. 1992, Chiaradia et al. 2016) and jellyfish (Cavallo et al. 2018). This variability in the diet is also found in their trophic interactions where penguins can reduce the prey trophic range in response to years of low breeding success (Chiaradia et al. 2010) and segregate foraging areas within the same colony (Sánchez et al. 2018). The species dives to a maximum 72 metres, with a preferred depth zone between 20 to 30 metres (Chiaradia et al. 2007, Ropert-Coudert et al. 2009)

Penguins typically lay two eggs per clutch (Stahel et al. 1987), and up to three clutches over a breeding season (Johannesen et al. 2003). The penguins exhibit six main breeding stages: courtship, pre-laying exodus, pre-laying, incubation, guard and post-guard (Chiaradia & Kerry 1999); followed by moulting and inter-breeding stages (Salton et al. 2015). When feeding chicks, some parents make more foraging trips than their mates. This situation represents the norm (72% of cases), rather than the previously expected equal parenting (Saraux et al. 2011). Individuals can also alternate between two consecutive long foraging trips and several shorter ones throughout the chick-rearing period (Saraux et al. 2011). Short trips allow for regular food provisioning of chicks (high feeding frequency and larger meals), whereas longer trips are triggered by a parent’s low body mass and therefore the need to replenish its energy reserves. Little penguins form groups when crossing the beach to nesting sites and individuals seem to choose their travelling partners (Daniel et al. 2007). When foraging,  some individuals can take advantage of human-made features, like ship channels to aid in their foraging (Preston et al. 2008). Breeding age, ranging from 2 to 18+ years, seems to play a crucial role as well, as middle-aged (8-12 years) penguins are better breeders (Nisbet & Dann 2009), employ more effective foraging strategies (Zimmer et al. 2011) and feed in different locations (Pelletier et al. 2014).

Endemic to Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, the species occurs from Western Australia (Carnac Island, 32.1210° S, 115.6621° E) to New South Wales (Broughton Island 32.61580°S 152.31400°E). The distribution is not continuous, as breeding colonies are absent from some sections of the southern coast of Australia. In New Zealand, Little Penguin occurs from the Chatham Islands (New Zealand) to mainland New Zealand (including Stewart Island), but is absent from Fiordland and South Westland.