Megadyptes antipodes: Yellow-eyed Penguin

Yellow-eyed Penguin - Megadyptes antipodes
( Hombron & Jacquinot, 1841 )

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Subspecies:	Unknown
Est. World Population:	2600-3000

CITES Status:	NOT LISTED
IUCN Status:	Endangered
U.S. ESA Status:	NOT LISTED

Body Length:
Tail Length:
Shoulder Height:
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Top Speed:
Jumping Ability:	(Horizontal)

Life Span:	in the Wild
Life Span:	in Captivity

Sexual Maturity:	(Females)
Sexual Maturity:	(Males)
Litter Size:
Gestation Period:

Habitat:

In the South Island the species tends to nest in forest and scrub remnants, amongst pasture and in exotic vegetation (McKay et al. 1999, Ratz and Murphy 1999, Seddon et al. 2013). Nests generally have surrounding vegetation that conceals them from visual contact with conspecifics (Seddon and Davis 1989), but this is not believed to be a prerequisite for successful breeding (Clarke et al. 2015). Two eggs are laid from mid-September to mid-October, with hatching occurring at the beginning of November. Chicks fledge from mid-February to mid-March (Seddon et al. 2013). Prey species on the mainland are primarily opalfish, sprat, silversides, ahuru, blue cod and arrow squid; red cod used to be an important prey species in the 1980s (van Heezik 1990, Moore and Wakelin 1997, Browne et al. 2011). Blue Cod DNA has been found in 100% of all faecal samples taken from mainland Yellow-eyed Penguins, indicating a significant change in prey quality and type (M. Young et al. unpublished). Yellow-eyed Penguins forage predominantly along the seafloor (87% of all dives) whereas pelagic dives mostly occur when they travel back to their breeding areas (Mattern et al. 2007). They occasionally dive deeper than 120 m but predominantly forage in depths of less than 100 m (Seddon et al. 2013). Individuals have preferred foraging sites that they revisit on subsequent foraging trips and even between years (Moore 1999, Mattern et al. 2007). They appear very sensitive to disturbance and degradation of their benthic foraging habitat (Browne et al. 2011, Ellenberg and Mattern 2012, Mattern et al. 2013).

Range:

Megadyptes antipodes is endemic to New Zealand where it breeds on the South Island's south-east coast (452 pairs in 2011-/12 [Seddon et al. 2013], 225 pairs 2018/19 [DOC unpublished data, 2020]), Stewart Island and outliers (178 pairs in 1999-2001 [Massaro and Blair 2003]), the Auckland Islands group (520-570 pairs in 1989 [Moore 1992] and 577 pairs in 2017 [Muller et al., 2020]) and Campbell Island (350-540 pairs in 1992 [Moore 2001, Seddon et al. 2013]). The South Island population is genetically distinct from the two sub-Antarctic populations (inferred immigration rate 0.003 per generation; Boessenkool et al. 2010). Adults are sedentary and generally forage within 50 km of their breeding colonies (Mattern et al. 2007), but juveniles may disperse north as far as the Cook Strait (Marchant and Higgins 1990).

Conservation:

Conservation Actions Underway

Conservation management projects are and have been undertaken in the South Island by or under New Zealand Department of Conservation (DOC) approvals. The Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust was formed to raise awareness and funds and now in conjunction with DOC undertakes predator control and coastal revegetation. Many mainland sites have been fenced to minimise disturbance by farm stock and to facilitate vegetation restoration. Predator trapping is intensive in many breeding sites. In 2019, a new recovery strategy commenced, set to last until 2024 (Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu et al., 2020). Some sites subject to unregulated visitor disturbance are either closed during critical periods, or patrolled by volunteer wardens. Improved signage and visitor guidelines are promoted at key sites, but these tools are less effective at improving visitor behaviour than closure or strict regulation (Stein et al. 2010). Rehabilitation is undertaken at four mainland sites, including Penguin Place on the Otago Peninsula and Penguin Rescue in North Otago, to prevent losses due to starvation, injury and moult complications. There is a census of South Island colonies approximately every five years, and a census of selected sites annually (Taylor 2000).

Conservation Actions Proposed

Obtain reliable population estimates for the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Sustain and enhance predator control at mainland breeding sites and eradicate predators (pigs and cats) from the Auckland Islands. Quantify the impact of commercial fishing activity on yellow-eyed penguins (bycatch mortality in gillnets and the influence of bottom disturbance by trawling/dredging on penguin behaviour and food quality), and minimise the potential for interactions with gillnet fisheries, including through the creation of Marine Protected Areas. Regulate tourist access to breeding colonies. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the spatial and temporal extent of at-sea distribution during critical seasons (e.g. breeding, pre-moult, winter) and life-history stages (e.g. juvenile dispersal) to quantify fisheries overlap. Derive up to date data on important diet species throughout the range to evaluate changing patterns of foraging and diet, and assess the implications of climate change on marine productivity of relevance for the species. Recovery Plan revision is underway and should formalise regular monitoring of nest numbers and breeding outcomes at selected sites, and ensure maintenance of the quality of the Yellow-eyed Penguin Database.