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| Subspecies: | Unknown |
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| Est. World Population: | 444-600 |
| CITES Status: | NOT LISTED |
| IUCN Status: | Vulnerable |
| U.S. ESA Status: | NOT LISTED |
| Body Length: | |
| Tail Length: | |
| Shoulder Height: | |
| Weight: | |
| Top Speed: | |
| Jumping Ability: | (Horizontal) |
| Life Span: | in the Wild |
| Life Span: | in Captivity |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Females) |
| Sexual Maturity: | (Males) |
| Litter Size: | |
| Gestation Period: | |
Habitat:
Mediterranean Monk Seals are medium-sized phocids that reach 2.3-2.8 m in length (Littnan et al. 2018). Based on seals examined after a mass mortality event in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou), average adult lengths were estimated at 2.42 m in females and 2.51 m in males. Pups up to three months of age averaged 1.08 m in length with a range of 0.74-1.38 m (Samaranch and González 2000). In Europe, new-born pups average 1.02 m and 15.5 kg in weight (Dendrinos 2011). Adults weigh from 240-300 kg (Littnan et al. 2018), with maximum records for a male weighing 400 kg and a pregnant female 302 kg (Sergeant et al. 1978).
Mediterranean Monk Seal pups in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) moult on average 64 days after birth in the case of females and 82 days on average in the case of males; the moult occurs partly in the water and is completed after approximately 15 days (Badosa et al. 2006). In contrast, in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the first moult occurs 19-57 days postpartum (Dendrinos 2011). Adult male Monk Seals develop the characteristic, black, adult pelage at the age of 4-6 years (Koemtzopoulos et al. 2022; R. Pires pers. comm. September 2023).
Mediterranean Monk Seals once hauled out on open beaches (Johnson and Lavigne 1999, Johnson 2004), but today they primarily use throughout their range marine caves for hauling out, resting, and pupping (González 2015, Karamanlidis et al. 2016a). However, in recent years Monk Seals in the Archipelago of Madeira (since 1997) (Pires et al. 2020) and in Greece (Dendrinos et al. 2008, Dendrinos et al. 2022) have been observed hauling out increasingly on open beaches and resting in the water (Pires 2011, Karamanlidis et al. 2017).
Most marine caves used by Mediterranean Monk Seals for resting and pupping possess a set of common geophysical characteristics, that include an entrance corridor and a dry surface/area where the seals haul out (Karamanlidis et al. 2004, Dendrinos et al. 2007b). Seal preferences regarding cave selection and use in an area are influenced by numerous parameters (Dendrinos et al. 1994). As a result, Monk Seals in the eastern Mediterranean and the Archipelago of Madeira use a high number of marine caves for resting and pupping (Gücü et al. 2004; MOm 2007, 2008b, 2009). In Greece, more than 500 caves have been found to be occupied by the species and more than 100 are used for pupping (MOm 2007, 2008b, 2009). Similarly, in a study that covered the coastline inhabited by Monk Seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Türkiye 39 marine caves were discovered, including three that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively used at the time of the survey (Gücü et al. 2004). At the island of Madeira and the sub-archipelago of the Desertas Islands 12 and 13 marine caves are considered to be suitable for the Mediterranean Monk Seal; from these, two and nine respectively are currently used by the species (Pires et al. 2020). In contrast, in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) only three caves are primarily used for hauling out and pupping (Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021). Cave selection may be influenced by changes in the internal morphology of a cave, as has been seen to occur in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) (González et al. 1997) or the state of the tide (only in the Atlantic populations, as tides in the Mediterranean are negligible) (Pires et al. 2007). Monk Seal activity in and around the marine caves in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and the Archipelago of Madeira is highest in autumn and winter and coincides with the pupping season of the species (Dendrinos et al. 1994, Gücü et al. 2004, Pires et al. 2007, Dendrinos 2011).
Monk Seal pupping in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and the Archipelago of Madeira is quite synchronous, occurring mainly in the months of October and November. This has been the case for more than 220 pups born in Greece from 1990 to 2014 (Dendrinos et al. 1994, Dendrinos 2011, MOm unpublished data September 2023), for 11 pups born at the Cilician Basin (Gücü et al. 2004) and six pups born at the coasts of İzmir and Muğla in Türkiye (SAD-AFAG unpublished data September 2023) and the majority of pups born in Madeira from 1990 onwards (Pires 2011, IFCN unpublished data September 2023). In contrast, in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) births can take place throughout the year (P. Fernández de Larrinoa pers. comm. September 2023). Pups begin to catch fish toward the end of their lactation period (Pastor and Aguilar 2003) and are weaned when they are about four months old, with up to five months reported (Pastor and Aguilar 2003, Aguilar et al. 2007, Dendrinos 2011, Kıraç and Ok 2019). Fostering and allosuckling are not uncommon and have been recorded in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) (Aguilar et al. 2007), the Archipelago of Madeira (Pires 2004), and in Greece (Karamanlidis et al. 2013). At the Cabo Blanco subpopulation, in 26.6% of the suckling episodes observed in mother–pup pairs of known identity, pups suckled from females other than their mothers. Some females nursed more than one pup at least occasionally, and in some cases, a pup was fostered long-term by an unrelated female (Aguilar et al. 2007). Pups enter the water and begin diving during the first week of their life (Karamanlidis et al. 2010, Karamanlidis et al. 2021a).
Generation length for the Mediterranean Monk Seal is estimated to be 11.2 years (Pacifici et al. 2013). Female Monk Seals in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) become sexually mature at three years of age (Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021) and can give birth in successive years. In contrast, in the Archipelago of Madeira, the age of first reproduction of females has been estimated at 6-7 years of age (Pires et al. 2020, Pires et al. 2023). Male Monk Seals have been recorded to become sexually mature at the age of four in Cabo Blanco, at the age of 4.5 in Greece (Koemtzopoulos et al. 2022) and at the age of 4-6 years in the Archipelago of Madeira (R. Pires pers. comm. September 2023).
Annual pup survival in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) is 0.59 (0.55-0.62) at two months of age and 0.46 (0.43-0.49) from birth to the age of one year (Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021). In the Archipelago of Madeira, the survival rate during the first year of life is 0.47 (0.31-0.64) (Pires et al. 2023). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and more specifically in Greece, annual pup survival until weaning has not been estimated, but is suspected to be generally higher (i.e., 0.7) than that recorded in the Atlantic subpopulations, which is most likely due to the fact that lactating females and their pups have a higher number of suitable caves to choose from when seeking refuge from severe weather conditions.
Telemetry studies have been performed in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) and in the Archipelago of Madeira in order to assess the diving behaviour of the Monk Seal. In the Cabo Blanco Peninsula, the maximum depth and duration of diving for one lactating female were 78 m and 15 minutes respectively (Gazo and Aguilar 2005), and 100 m for an adult male (P. Fernandez de Larrinoa pers. comm. September 2023). Although maximum dive depths for an adult male and an adult female of 393 m and 429 m have been recorded in the Archipelago of Madeira respectively, the majority (i.e., 80%) of the dives were between 0 m and 49 m and 99.6% of the dives occurred up to a depth of 200 m (Pires et al. 2020). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, maximum dive depths for a rehabilitated male and a female Monk Seal in Greece were 123 m (Dendrinos et al. 2007a) and 191 m (MOm unpublished data September 2023), respectively. In Türkiye, adult Monk Seals have been observed to dive for an average of approximately 6.5 minutes and then rest at the surface for approximately one minute (Kıraç et al. 2002). Monk seals in the eastern Mediterranean Sea have been recorded to travel ~288 km in three months with a maximum straight distance travelled of ~78 km (Adamantopoulou et al. 2011).
Stomach content analysis of dead Monk Seals has revealed that they have a heterogeneous diet consisting of bony fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans. In Greece for example, Monk Seals are known to eat more than 70 different prey species [50% cephalopods, 48% fishes, 1.5% non-cephalopod molluscs, 0.4% crustaceans (Pierce et al. 2011)]. The Common Octopus (Octopus vulgaris ~34%) and bony fish from the family Sparidae (~28%) were most frequently identified in Monk Seal stomachs (Pierce et al. 2011). Collectively, results from throughout the range of the species from direct observations (Neves 1998, Neves and Pires 1999), stomach content (Machado 1979, Salman et al. 2001, Karamanlidis et al. 2011, Pierce et al. 2011, Tonay et al. 2016, Pires et al. 2020) and stable isotope analyses (Karamanlidis et al. 2014) suggest that Monk Seals in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and in the Archipelago of Madeira forage primarily on the continental shelf along the coast.
Mediterranean Monk Seal pups in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) moult on average 64 days after birth in the case of females and 82 days on average in the case of males; the moult occurs partly in the water and is completed after approximately 15 days (Badosa et al. 2006). In contrast, in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the first moult occurs 19-57 days postpartum (Dendrinos 2011). Adult male Monk Seals develop the characteristic, black, adult pelage at the age of 4-6 years (Koemtzopoulos et al. 2022; R. Pires pers. comm. September 2023).
Mediterranean Monk Seals once hauled out on open beaches (Johnson and Lavigne 1999, Johnson 2004), but today they primarily use throughout their range marine caves for hauling out, resting, and pupping (González 2015, Karamanlidis et al. 2016a). However, in recent years Monk Seals in the Archipelago of Madeira (since 1997) (Pires et al. 2020) and in Greece (Dendrinos et al. 2008, Dendrinos et al. 2022) have been observed hauling out increasingly on open beaches and resting in the water (Pires 2011, Karamanlidis et al. 2017).
Most marine caves used by Mediterranean Monk Seals for resting and pupping possess a set of common geophysical characteristics, that include an entrance corridor and a dry surface/area where the seals haul out (Karamanlidis et al. 2004, Dendrinos et al. 2007b). Seal preferences regarding cave selection and use in an area are influenced by numerous parameters (Dendrinos et al. 1994). As a result, Monk Seals in the eastern Mediterranean and the Archipelago of Madeira use a high number of marine caves for resting and pupping (Gücü et al. 2004; MOm 2007, 2008b, 2009). In Greece, more than 500 caves have been found to be occupied by the species and more than 100 are used for pupping (MOm 2007, 2008b, 2009). Similarly, in a study that covered the coastline inhabited by Monk Seals in the Cilician Basin region of southern Türkiye 39 marine caves were discovered, including three that were used for pupping and 16 that were actively used at the time of the survey (Gücü et al. 2004). At the island of Madeira and the sub-archipelago of the Desertas Islands 12 and 13 marine caves are considered to be suitable for the Mediterranean Monk Seal; from these, two and nine respectively are currently used by the species (Pires et al. 2020). In contrast, in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) only three caves are primarily used for hauling out and pupping (Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021). Cave selection may be influenced by changes in the internal morphology of a cave, as has been seen to occur in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) (González et al. 1997) or the state of the tide (only in the Atlantic populations, as tides in the Mediterranean are negligible) (Pires et al. 2007). Monk Seal activity in and around the marine caves in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and the Archipelago of Madeira is highest in autumn and winter and coincides with the pupping season of the species (Dendrinos et al. 1994, Gücü et al. 2004, Pires et al. 2007, Dendrinos 2011).
Monk Seal pupping in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and the Archipelago of Madeira is quite synchronous, occurring mainly in the months of October and November. This has been the case for more than 220 pups born in Greece from 1990 to 2014 (Dendrinos et al. 1994, Dendrinos 2011, MOm unpublished data September 2023), for 11 pups born at the Cilician Basin (Gücü et al. 2004) and six pups born at the coasts of İzmir and Muğla in Türkiye (SAD-AFAG unpublished data September 2023) and the majority of pups born in Madeira from 1990 onwards (Pires 2011, IFCN unpublished data September 2023). In contrast, in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) births can take place throughout the year (P. Fernández de Larrinoa pers. comm. September 2023). Pups begin to catch fish toward the end of their lactation period (Pastor and Aguilar 2003) and are weaned when they are about four months old, with up to five months reported (Pastor and Aguilar 2003, Aguilar et al. 2007, Dendrinos 2011, Kıraç and Ok 2019). Fostering and allosuckling are not uncommon and have been recorded in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) (Aguilar et al. 2007), the Archipelago of Madeira (Pires 2004), and in Greece (Karamanlidis et al. 2013). At the Cabo Blanco subpopulation, in 26.6% of the suckling episodes observed in mother–pup pairs of known identity, pups suckled from females other than their mothers. Some females nursed more than one pup at least occasionally, and in some cases, a pup was fostered long-term by an unrelated female (Aguilar et al. 2007). Pups enter the water and begin diving during the first week of their life (Karamanlidis et al. 2010, Karamanlidis et al. 2021a).
Generation length for the Mediterranean Monk Seal is estimated to be 11.2 years (Pacifici et al. 2013). Female Monk Seals in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) become sexually mature at three years of age (Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021) and can give birth in successive years. In contrast, in the Archipelago of Madeira, the age of first reproduction of females has been estimated at 6-7 years of age (Pires et al. 2020, Pires et al. 2023). Male Monk Seals have been recorded to become sexually mature at the age of four in Cabo Blanco, at the age of 4.5 in Greece (Koemtzopoulos et al. 2022) and at the age of 4-6 years in the Archipelago of Madeira (R. Pires pers. comm. September 2023).
Annual pup survival in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) is 0.59 (0.55-0.62) at two months of age and 0.46 (0.43-0.49) from birth to the age of one year (Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021). In the Archipelago of Madeira, the survival rate during the first year of life is 0.47 (0.31-0.64) (Pires et al. 2023). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and more specifically in Greece, annual pup survival until weaning has not been estimated, but is suspected to be generally higher (i.e., 0.7) than that recorded in the Atlantic subpopulations, which is most likely due to the fact that lactating females and their pups have a higher number of suitable caves to choose from when seeking refuge from severe weather conditions.
Telemetry studies have been performed in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) and in the Archipelago of Madeira in order to assess the diving behaviour of the Monk Seal. In the Cabo Blanco Peninsula, the maximum depth and duration of diving for one lactating female were 78 m and 15 minutes respectively (Gazo and Aguilar 2005), and 100 m for an adult male (P. Fernandez de Larrinoa pers. comm. September 2023). Although maximum dive depths for an adult male and an adult female of 393 m and 429 m have been recorded in the Archipelago of Madeira respectively, the majority (i.e., 80%) of the dives were between 0 m and 49 m and 99.6% of the dives occurred up to a depth of 200 m (Pires et al. 2020). In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, maximum dive depths for a rehabilitated male and a female Monk Seal in Greece were 123 m (Dendrinos et al. 2007a) and 191 m (MOm unpublished data September 2023), respectively. In Türkiye, adult Monk Seals have been observed to dive for an average of approximately 6.5 minutes and then rest at the surface for approximately one minute (Kıraç et al. 2002). Monk seals in the eastern Mediterranean Sea have been recorded to travel ~288 km in three months with a maximum straight distance travelled of ~78 km (Adamantopoulou et al. 2011).
Stomach content analysis of dead Monk Seals has revealed that they have a heterogeneous diet consisting of bony fishes, cephalopods, and crustaceans. In Greece for example, Monk Seals are known to eat more than 70 different prey species [50% cephalopods, 48% fishes, 1.5% non-cephalopod molluscs, 0.4% crustaceans (Pierce et al. 2011)]. The Common Octopus (Octopus vulgaris ~34%) and bony fish from the family Sparidae (~28%) were most frequently identified in Monk Seal stomachs (Pierce et al. 2011). Collectively, results from throughout the range of the species from direct observations (Neves 1998, Neves and Pires 1999), stomach content (Machado 1979, Salman et al. 2001, Karamanlidis et al. 2011, Pierce et al. 2011, Tonay et al. 2016, Pires et al. 2020) and stable isotope analyses (Karamanlidis et al. 2014) suggest that Monk Seals in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and in the Archipelago of Madeira forage primarily on the continental shelf along the coast.
Range:
Monachus monachus (Mediterranean Monk Seals) were once widely and continuously distributed throughout the entire Mediterranean and Black Sea and the Archipelagos of the Canary, Madeira and Azores Islands (Karamanlidis et al. 2016a), as well as the north-western coast of Africa and the coast of the Iberian Peninsula in the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean (González 2015). Today the global distribution of the species is fragmented into three main subpopulations, one in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and two in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the most important reproductive areas of the species are at islands in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, and along the coasts of mainland Greece, Türkiye and Cyprus (Adamantopoulou et al. 1999, Güçlüsoy et al. 2004, Gücü et al. 2004, Gücü et al. 2009a, Gücü et al. 2009b, Nicolaou et al. 2019, Beton et al. 2021, Adamantopoulou et al. 2022). In the Turkish Black Sea, Mediterranean Monk Seals are believed to be extinct since 1997 (Kıraç and Savas 1996; Kıraç 2001, 2011); some individuals still survive in the Sea of Marmara (Inanmaz et al. 2014, Kıraç and Veryeri 2018). Following a number of sightings (Bundone et al. 2022) and the birth of a pup in 2019 (Eastern Adriatic Monk seal Project 2019) the species is considered to be resident now also in Albania.
Sightings/occurrences of vagrant animals, most likely originating from Greece and Türkiye, are reported/assumed from throughout the Mediterranean (Karamanlidis et al. 2016a, Bundone et al. 2019): e.g., Italy (Fioravanti et al. 2020, Valsecchi et al. 2022), Montenegro and Croatia (Eastern Adriatic Monk seal Project 2019), Lebanon, Israel (Scheinin et al. 2011), Libya (Alfaghi et al. 2013), Egypt and Spain (Valsecchi et al. 2022). Mediterranean Monk Seals are considered extinct in Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cabo Verde, France, Gambia, Georgia, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Portugal (continental part and Archipelago of Azores), Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovenia, Spain (including the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean), Tunisia and Ukraine.
In the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean Monk seals have gone extinct throughout their historical range and survive nowadays only in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) and the Archipelago of Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, Karamanlidis et al. 2003, Karamanlidis et al. 2004, Pires et al. 2008, González 2015, Pires et al. 2020, Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021, Pires et al. 2023).
Sightings/occurrences of vagrant animals, most likely originating from Greece and Türkiye, are reported/assumed from throughout the Mediterranean (Karamanlidis et al. 2016a, Bundone et al. 2019): e.g., Italy (Fioravanti et al. 2020, Valsecchi et al. 2022), Montenegro and Croatia (Eastern Adriatic Monk seal Project 2019), Lebanon, Israel (Scheinin et al. 2011), Libya (Alfaghi et al. 2013), Egypt and Spain (Valsecchi et al. 2022). Mediterranean Monk Seals are considered extinct in Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cabo Verde, France, Gambia, Georgia, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Portugal (continental part and Archipelago of Azores), Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovenia, Spain (including the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean), Tunisia and Ukraine.
In the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean Monk seals have gone extinct throughout their historical range and survive nowadays only in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) and the Archipelago of Madeira (Pires and Neves 2001, Karamanlidis et al. 2003, Karamanlidis et al. 2004, Pires et al. 2008, González 2015, Pires et al. 2020, Fernández de Larrinoa et al. 2021, Pires et al. 2023).
Conservation:
The Mediterranean Monk Seal is legally protected throughout its range through numerous national laws and regional (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2013) and international treaties [e.g., the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (a.k.a. the CITES Convention), the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS or the Bonn Convention), the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Convention), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)], as well as European Union (EU) regulations (e.g., Council Directive 92/43/EEC-Natura 2000 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats of Wild Fauna and Flora, and Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008, the “Marine Strategy Framework Directive”).
Legislative measures and research, management, and conservation actions to effectively protect important Monk Seal populations in Greece are carried out throughout the country (Dendrinos et al. 2020), and have been supported by several EU-funded LIFE projects (e.g., “Monk seal & fisheries: Mitigating the conflict in Greek seas”, LIFE05 NAT/GR/000083; “Integrated monk seal conservation in Northern Cyclades”, LIFE12 NAT/GR/000688). In Türkiye, conservation measures are carried out primarily in four provinces: İzmir, Muğla, Antalya and Mersin. In addition, five coastal locations were adopted as monk seal priority conservation zones in the country in 2004: Gökçeada, Foça-Karaburun, Alaçatı-Sıgacık, the Bodrum Peninsula, and the Cilician coasts (Kıraç et al. 2013). In Cyprus, the Mediterranean Monk Seal has been legally protected since 1971 by the Fisheries Law and Regulations. Research (i.e., including intense monitoring efforts), effective management of marine protected areas designated for the species and public awareness, are some of the conservation measures implemented to effectively protect and conserve the Monk Seal in Cyprus (Department of Fisheries and Marine Research 2022). In Madeira, legislative measures and research, management, and conservation actions to effectively protect Monk Seals and their habitat are carried out throughout the Archipelago since 1988 (Pires et al. 2020). Recent conservation efforts in the region have been supported by the LIFE “Mediterranean monk seal conservation in Madeira and development of a conservation status surveillance system” Project LIFE13NAT/ES/000974. Monk Seal habitat in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) is currently protected by several coastal and marine protected areas, as well as by ‘no take’ reserves. The local Monk Seal subpopulation has been permanently monitored and protected by an International Conservation Program since 2000.
Additionally, the species is explicitly mentioned in numerous Natura 2000 sites within the countries of the EU (i.e., Greece, Cyprus and Madeira in Portugal). According to the Council’s Directive 92/43EEC ‘on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora’ the Mediterranean Monk Seal is considered a species of community importance. Based on the above Directive, Natura 2000 sites are legally considered by EU Member States as Protected Areas. All marine caves used by Monk Seals in the Archipelago of Madeira are situated within the local Natura 2000 network (Pires et al. 2020).
Throughout the range of the species, widespread action has been taken to sensitize the general public towards Monk Seal conservation, to protect pupping caves, to restrict fishing gear and relocate the most dangerous fishing practices, to develop monitoring programs and intervention protocols, and to increase on-site capability to rehabilitate sick and injured individuals, particularly pups. Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties (on a regional, national, and international level) are in force to protect Monk Seals and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientists and managers to discuss Monk Seal conservation issues and problems. Furthermore, numerous international bodies and fora, including the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (SPA/RAC) and the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean, have put forward initiatives and proposals in order to ameliorate existing threats and mitigate pressures from relevant sectors (i.e., fisheries, bycatch, etc.). An International Action Plan for the recovery of the Monk Seal in the eastern Atlantic Ocean has been developed by the national authorities of Mauritania, Morocco, Portugal and Spain and has been successfully implemented over the last 20 years, thus improving the conservation status of the species in the region (González et al. 2006).
In Greece, the “Action plan for the Mediterranean Monk Seal” (Dendrinos et al. 2020) describes in detail actions that should be carried out in the country until 2027 in order to safeguard the future of the species. In Türkiye, nationwide conservation and public awareness and educational efforts have been ongoing for more than three decades. Conservation activities have included the protection of critical Monk Seal habitat (i.e., including the prohibition of the illegal entering into Monk Seal caves), scientific monitoring of the species, rescue and rehabilitation of orphan, sick and wounded seals, clean-up activities in and around important Monk Seal caves and widespread awareness and educational activities in schools and fishing communities (Kıraç et al. 2013). Despite stable population trends, numerous threats to the Monk seal persist in Türkiye and the status of the species should be considered critical. Therefore, effective conservation measures for the species and its habitat remain of critical importance in Türkiye and should be pursued with vigour (C.O. Kıraç and M. Ok pers. comm. September 2023). In Cyprus, habitat restoration activities, promoting public awareness, developing and establishing a National Action Plan and a national monitoring protocol, scientific monitoring of the species and habitat protection are some of the priorities for, and conservation actions taken, to safeguard the future of the species in the country (Department of Fisheries and Marine Research 2022). Following the conservation priorities identified in the Action Plan for the recovery of the Monk Seal in the eastern Atlantic Ocean (González et al. 2006), conservation actions for Monk Seals in the Archipelago of Madeira have included, among others, the standardized, systematic monitoring of the species and its habitat, mitigating negative fishery-Monk Seal interactions, public awareness and habitat protection (Instituto das Florestas e Conservação da Natureza unpublished data September 2023). In 2020 a Strategy for the Conservation of the Mediterranean Monk Seal was approved by the Government Council of Madeira (Pires et al. 2020). Following the same priorities, conservation actions in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) have included the permanent protection and monitoring of the reproductive areas of the local Monk Seal population, the standardized, systematic monitoring of the population, the identification of critical terrestrial and marine (e.g. foraging areas) habitats, the development of a social aid program focused on artisan fishermen to improve their living and working conditions, as well as the implementation of a wide awareness and information program for local communities, fishermen and the general public.
Priority conservation actions for the Mediterranean Monk Seal include: a) strengthening the legal framework for the protection of the terrestrial and marine habitat of the species, b) effective protection of the species (i.e., reduction of deliberate killing) and its terrestrial and marine habitat, c) population and habitat monitoring (including, for example, determining food availability and primary death causes), d) rescue and rehabilitation of injured, orphaned and sick individuals, e) public awareness, f) monitoring and mitigating negative seal – fishery interactions (Karamanlidis et al. 2016a), and g) expansion of the species’ current geographic range in the Atlantic Ocean (González et al. 2006).
Legislative measures and research, management, and conservation actions to effectively protect important Monk Seal populations in Greece are carried out throughout the country (Dendrinos et al. 2020), and have been supported by several EU-funded LIFE projects (e.g., “Monk seal & fisheries: Mitigating the conflict in Greek seas”, LIFE05 NAT/GR/000083; “Integrated monk seal conservation in Northern Cyclades”, LIFE12 NAT/GR/000688). In Türkiye, conservation measures are carried out primarily in four provinces: İzmir, Muğla, Antalya and Mersin. In addition, five coastal locations were adopted as monk seal priority conservation zones in the country in 2004: Gökçeada, Foça-Karaburun, Alaçatı-Sıgacık, the Bodrum Peninsula, and the Cilician coasts (Kıraç et al. 2013). In Cyprus, the Mediterranean Monk Seal has been legally protected since 1971 by the Fisheries Law and Regulations. Research (i.e., including intense monitoring efforts), effective management of marine protected areas designated for the species and public awareness, are some of the conservation measures implemented to effectively protect and conserve the Monk Seal in Cyprus (Department of Fisheries and Marine Research 2022). In Madeira, legislative measures and research, management, and conservation actions to effectively protect Monk Seals and their habitat are carried out throughout the Archipelago since 1988 (Pires et al. 2020). Recent conservation efforts in the region have been supported by the LIFE “Mediterranean monk seal conservation in Madeira and development of a conservation status surveillance system” Project LIFE13NAT/ES/000974. Monk Seal habitat in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) is currently protected by several coastal and marine protected areas, as well as by ‘no take’ reserves. The local Monk Seal subpopulation has been permanently monitored and protected by an International Conservation Program since 2000.
Additionally, the species is explicitly mentioned in numerous Natura 2000 sites within the countries of the EU (i.e., Greece, Cyprus and Madeira in Portugal). According to the Council’s Directive 92/43EEC ‘on the conservation of natural habitats of wild fauna and flora’ the Mediterranean Monk Seal is considered a species of community importance. Based on the above Directive, Natura 2000 sites are legally considered by EU Member States as Protected Areas. All marine caves used by Monk Seals in the Archipelago of Madeira are situated within the local Natura 2000 network (Pires et al. 2020).
Throughout the range of the species, widespread action has been taken to sensitize the general public towards Monk Seal conservation, to protect pupping caves, to restrict fishing gear and relocate the most dangerous fishing practices, to develop monitoring programs and intervention protocols, and to increase on-site capability to rehabilitate sick and injured individuals, particularly pups. Numerous agreements, conventions, and treaties (on a regional, national, and international level) are in force to protect Monk Seals and many workshops and conferences have brought together scientists and managers to discuss Monk Seal conservation issues and problems. Furthermore, numerous international bodies and fora, including the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (SPA/RAC) and the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean, have put forward initiatives and proposals in order to ameliorate existing threats and mitigate pressures from relevant sectors (i.e., fisheries, bycatch, etc.). An International Action Plan for the recovery of the Monk Seal in the eastern Atlantic Ocean has been developed by the national authorities of Mauritania, Morocco, Portugal and Spain and has been successfully implemented over the last 20 years, thus improving the conservation status of the species in the region (González et al. 2006).
In Greece, the “Action plan for the Mediterranean Monk Seal” (Dendrinos et al. 2020) describes in detail actions that should be carried out in the country until 2027 in order to safeguard the future of the species. In Türkiye, nationwide conservation and public awareness and educational efforts have been ongoing for more than three decades. Conservation activities have included the protection of critical Monk Seal habitat (i.e., including the prohibition of the illegal entering into Monk Seal caves), scientific monitoring of the species, rescue and rehabilitation of orphan, sick and wounded seals, clean-up activities in and around important Monk Seal caves and widespread awareness and educational activities in schools and fishing communities (Kıraç et al. 2013). Despite stable population trends, numerous threats to the Monk seal persist in Türkiye and the status of the species should be considered critical. Therefore, effective conservation measures for the species and its habitat remain of critical importance in Türkiye and should be pursued with vigour (C.O. Kıraç and M. Ok pers. comm. September 2023). In Cyprus, habitat restoration activities, promoting public awareness, developing and establishing a National Action Plan and a national monitoring protocol, scientific monitoring of the species and habitat protection are some of the priorities for, and conservation actions taken, to safeguard the future of the species in the country (Department of Fisheries and Marine Research 2022). Following the conservation priorities identified in the Action Plan for the recovery of the Monk Seal in the eastern Atlantic Ocean (González et al. 2006), conservation actions for Monk Seals in the Archipelago of Madeira have included, among others, the standardized, systematic monitoring of the species and its habitat, mitigating negative fishery-Monk Seal interactions, public awareness and habitat protection (Instituto das Florestas e Conservação da Natureza unpublished data September 2023). In 2020 a Strategy for the Conservation of the Mediterranean Monk Seal was approved by the Government Council of Madeira (Pires et al. 2020). Following the same priorities, conservation actions in the Cabo Blanco Peninsula (Ras Nouadhibou) have included the permanent protection and monitoring of the reproductive areas of the local Monk Seal population, the standardized, systematic monitoring of the population, the identification of critical terrestrial and marine (e.g. foraging areas) habitats, the development of a social aid program focused on artisan fishermen to improve their living and working conditions, as well as the implementation of a wide awareness and information program for local communities, fishermen and the general public.
Priority conservation actions for the Mediterranean Monk Seal include: a) strengthening the legal framework for the protection of the terrestrial and marine habitat of the species, b) effective protection of the species (i.e., reduction of deliberate killing) and its terrestrial and marine habitat, c) population and habitat monitoring (including, for example, determining food availability and primary death causes), d) rescue and rehabilitation of injured, orphaned and sick individuals, e) public awareness, f) monitoring and mitigating negative seal – fishery interactions (Karamanlidis et al. 2016a), and g) expansion of the species’ current geographic range in the Atlantic Ocean (González et al. 2006).