Populations in Iceland, and around the North and Baltic seas are generally year-round residents, while other populations migrate between breeding and wintering grounds (Billerman et al. 2020). During the winter the species expands its range to the North East Atlantic coasts of France and Portugal, the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, and the entire coasts of the Black Sea (Billerman et al. 2020). Within Europe it inhabits coasts, tidal estuaries, agricultural land, reservoirs and breeds on coastal cliffs and islands, in beaches, bogs, marshes and meadows. It feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, small fish and grain (in spring). It occasionally kills birds and small mammals (Billerman et al. 2020).

Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.

Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed under the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. In the EU it is listed on Annex II of the Bird’s Directive. 83 Important Bird Areas have been identified for the species across the European region. In the EU it is listed in 381 Special Protection Areas.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Continued invasive predator eradication programmes at breeding sites; monitoring of egg collection activities to ensure sustainability. Management of existing protecting sites and Important Bird Areas to reduce habitat degradation and conversion. On board fisheries observer programmes to monitor levels of fisheries bycatch.